What does a 3d printer use to print

• Plastic is still the most popular material used for 3D printing.
• As the 3D-printing market value increases, the list of what materials can be used also grows.
• Raw materials such as metal, graphite, and carbon fiber are commonly used for 3D printing, though at-home use is mostly limited to PLA for now.

Ice cream. Molecules for medicine. Even human skin. The list of what materials are used in 3D printing grows longer—and much more interesting—by the day. And expanding it is a multibillion-dollar material arms race right now.

A recently released 3D-printing market study found that the worldwide market for 3D-printing products was valued at $12. 6 billion in 2020 and was expected to grow to $37.2 billion by 2036. That means a huge increase in the materials those machines use.

What Is The Most Common Material Used for 3D Printing?

Plastic still reigns supreme in the 3D printing. According to a Grand View Research report, the market size for 3D printing plastics globally was valued at $638.7 million in 2020 and was expected to grow to $2.83 billion by 2027.

This material isn’t just your “everyday” plastic. Two types of plastic are most commonly used in 3D printing:

• PLA: Poly Lactic Acid (PLA) is the most popular 3D-printing material. It’s a biodegradable plastic made from renewables such as cornstarch. Its low melting point makes it easy to use at home.
• ABS: Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) is best suited for parts that require strength and flexibility, like car components or household appliances. It’s also known for its low cost.

But it doesn’t stop there in the 3D-printing materials world.

1. Metal

Used for: Ready-to-install parts, finished products, prototypes

If there is a runner-up to plastic, it would be metal. Direct metal laser sintering (DMLS) is the technique and, unlike printing plastics, it can be used to make either a finished industrial product or a prototype. The aviation industry is already an early proponent and consumer of DMLS printing to streamline operations and manufacture ready-to-install parts. There are even already mass-market DMLS printers for creating 3D-printed jewelry.

The growth and popularity of 3D printing metals holds the potential to manufacture and create more effective machine parts that currently cannot be mass-produced onsite. This could lead to better conductors, tensile strength, and other attributes of laboratory metals than “mined-and-refined” metals such as steel and copper.

In the aerospace industry, the materials question is largely answered, and creating volume of parts is the Holy Grail. GE Aviation began printing fuel nozzles for its LEAP jet engine in 2016, ramping up to 30,000 parts in less than three years and printing its 100,000th nozzle in 2021. The LEAP’s successor, the RISE, will also incorporate 3D-printed parts.

Used for: Electronics, lighting

Australian-listed graphite and nickel miner Kibaran Resources has partnered with 3D-printing company 3D Group to share development costs on a research-and-development venture called 3D Graphtech Industries.

The partnership is pursuing patents to investigate 3D printing graphite and graphene, a pure form of carbon first created in a laboratory in 2004. Graphene conducts electricity better and is stronger, easier to insulate, and lighter than other conductors on the market today. It outperforms even the best conductors several times over. Because it must be created in a lab, it is a good case study for just what kind of mass production of metals additive manufacturing can accomplish.

Materials for research and development are sourced from Kibaran’s Tanzanian mines, where graphite with high crystallinity and a purity of 99.9% carbon has been found. This is incredibly well-suited to the production of graphene.

The semiconductor industry is interested in producing large quantities of graphene, as well. For example, IBM found a way to use it for LED lighting in 2014. The ability to 3D print sheets of material for use in LEDs could seriously cut lighting production costs.

Used for: Bearings, parts, electrical cable installation

Related to graphite, carbon fiber (which undergoes an oxidation process that stretches the polymer) can be added to the more traditional plastic to create a composite that can be as strong as steel but less intensive to use than aluminum, says Markforged. The company’s large-format 3D printers are designed to print stronger parts more quickly and at significantly lower costs.

Meanwhile, startup Impossible Objects has also been exploring carbon fiber, as well as glass, Kevlar, and fiberglass. The company’s printer can also work with PEEK (polyether ether ketone) thermoplastic polymers, which are typically used for bearings, piston parts, and electrical cable installation.

New 3D Printing Materials

The 3D-printing industry is experimenting with a wide variety of innovative, novel approaches such a bio-based resins made from corn and soybean oil, powders, nitinol, and even paper.

As the list of materials grows, what does this mean for the actual hardware? Right now, on the consumer level, plastic is about as good as it gets. For example, the $1,399 Dremel 3D40 Flex is limited to PLA.

Today, several printers are focused entirely on DMLS, including the 3DSystems DMP Flex 350 and several models from Stratasys, but these currently cost upward of $100,000 each because DMLS printers burn much hotter than their plastic counterparts, as the powders and metals they create have higher melting points. Stronger housings and more powerful industrial smelting tools increase their costs significantly.

Although many 3D-printer manufacturers are offering metal 3D-printing services, it will be some time before the economies of scale that helped bring down the cost of plastic 3D printing affect the DMLS market. And 3D-printing systems with graphite/carbon fiber are just now starting to gain traction in the marketplace.

The diversity of applications that industries are exploring for 3D printing makes for an exciting but tumultuous time. From jet parts to lighting to rapid prototyping, the new (and “old”) 3D printing materials will deliver even more opportunities for how and what industries print.

This article has been updated. It was originally published in November 2014.

About the Author

Jeff Yoders has covered IT, CAD, and BIM for Building Design + Construction, Structural Engineer, and CE News magazines. He has won six American Society of Business Publications Editors awards and was part of the reporting team for the 2012 Jesse H. Neal Award for best subject-related series of stories.

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Top 10 Materials Used For Industrial 3D Printing

Over the years, 3D printing industry has been growing and new advancements are being introduced. New 3D printing machines are also being developed to print different kinds of materials such as plastics, metals, composites and many more.

When it comes to industrial 3D printing, there is a wide range of materials to choose from. These materials have their own unique features, strengths and weaknesses. Moreover, there are important factors such as material type, texture, cost, etc. that need to be considered to avoid mistakes in 3d printing. It can be difficult to choose the most suitable material for a specific project.

To guide designers and engineers, listed below are the Top 10 materials used for industrial 3D printing.

1. Nylon

Nylon (known as polyamide) is a synthetic thermoplastic linear polyamide and is the most common plastic material. It is a well-known 3D printing filament because of its flexibility, durability, low friction and corrosion resistance. Nylon is also a popular material used in manufacturing of clothes and accessories.

Nylon is suitable to use when creating complex and delicate geometries. It is primarily used as filaments in FDM (Fused Deposition Modeling) or FFF (Fused Filament Fabrication) 3D printers. This material is inexpensive and recognised as one of the toughest plastic material.

Distinct Characteristics:

• Nylon is known for its durability.
• It has an excellent strength to flexibility ratio.
• Nylon has a very little warpage.
• This type of material can be easily dyed or coloured.

Disadvantages:

• Since nylon is hydroscopic, it should be kept dry.
• It has a shelf life of 12 months.
• This material can shrink during cooling, thus, prints may be less precise.
• Printer suitability also varies.

2. ABS

ABS (Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene) is a thermoplastic that is commonly used as a 3D printer filament. It is also a material generally used in personal or household 3D printing and is a go-to material for most 3D printers.

Distinct Characteristics:

• It is one of the most accessible and cheap materials for 3D printing.
• ABS is highly available and has a wide variety of colours.
• This material has a longer lifespan compared to Nylon.
• It is also mechanically strong.
• This material is not suitable for hobbyists. It is only used for manufacturers and engineers who are looking for high-quality prototype production.

Disadvantages:

• It requires heated bed when printing.
• Since ABS materials have high melting point, it has a tendency to experience warping if cooled while printing.
• This type of filament is a non-biodegradable toxic material that releases toxic fumes with awful smell at high temperature.

3. Resin

Resin is one of the most used material in 3D printing. It is mainly used in technologies such as SLA, DLP, Multijet or CLIP technologies. There are various types of resins that can be used in 3D printing such as castable resins, tough resins, flexible resins, etc.

Distinct characteristics:

• It can be used in many applications.
• It has low shrinkage.
• Resin materials have high chemical resistance.
• This material is rigid and delicate.

Disadvantages:

• It is expensive.
• This type of filament also expires.
• It needs to be stored securely due to its high photo-reactivity.
• When exposed to heat, it can cause premature polymerization.

4. PLA (Polylactic Acid)

PLA or Polylactic Acid are made from renewable resources such as sugarcane or cornstarch. It is also called “green plastic”. It is mostly used in primary and secondary schools since it is safe to use and easy to print with. It is also used in FDM desktop printing.

Distinct characteristics:

• PLA is easy to print since it has low warping.
• It can also be printed on a cold surface.
• It can print with sharper corners and features compared to ABS material.
• This material is available in different colours.

Disadvantages:

• PLA materials are not very sturdy and can deform when exposed to extreme heat.
• This type of material is less sturdy.

5. Gold and silver

Today, it is possible to 3D print using gold and silver. These filaments are sturdy materials and are processed in powder form. These materials are generally used in the jewellery sector. These metal use the DMLS (Direct Metal Laser Sintering) or SLM process for printing.

Distinct Characteristics:

• It has high electrical conductance.
• It is heat proof.

Disadvantages:

• Printing with gold and silver are expensive.
• It takes a lot of effort and time to get it right.
• Both gold and silver are difficult to work with lasers because of its high reflectivity and high thermal conductivity.
• Since extremely high temperature is needed to print these materials, a regular FDM 3D printer is not suitable to use.

6. Stainless steel

Stainless steel is printed by fusion or laser sintering. There are two possible technologies that can be used for this material. It can be DMLS or SLM technologies. Since stainless steel is all about strength and detail, it is perfect to use for miniatures, bolts and key chains

Distinct Characteristics:

• Stainless steel can be heat treated in order to improve strength and hardness.
• It performs well in high strength applications.
• It provides strong resistance against corrosion.
• It has high ductility.

Disadvantages:

• Building time for 3D printing using these metals are much longer.
• Printing with stainless steel is expensive.
• Printing size is limited.

7. Titanium

Titanium is the strongest and the lightest material for 3D printing. It is used in the process called Direct Metal Laser Sintering. This metal is mainly used in high-tech fields such as space exploration, aeronautics and medical field.

Distinct Characteristics:

• It provides greater complexity and resolution in design.
• It offers industrial designers precision in design.
• It has an average surface roughness.
• Titanium is also biocompatible and resists corrosion.

Disadvantages:

• Titanium 3D printing is expensive.

8. Ceramics

Ceramics is one of the newest material that is used in 3D printing. It is more durable than metal and plastic since it can withstand extreme heat and pressure without even breaking or warping it. Moreover, this type of material is not prone to corrosion like other metals or wear away like plastics do.

This material is generally used in Binder Jetting technology, SLA (Stereolithography) and DLP (Digital Light Processing).

Distinct characteristics:

• It has high-precision components with a smooth and glossy surface.
• It has also resistance to acid, heat and lye.
• It has a wide range of colour

Disadvantages:

• Ceramic requires great amount of temperature to melt.
• It is not suitable for glazing and kilning processes.
• Since it is fragile, it has limitations in printing objects with enclosed and interlocking parts.
• It is not ideal for piece assembly process.

9. PET/PETG

Like Nylon, PET or Polyethylene terephthalate is also one of the frequently used plastic. This material is used in thermoforming processes. It can also be combined with other materials like glass fiber to create engineering resins.

In 3D printing, PETG is used. It is a modified version of PET where G stands for “glycol-modified”. As a result, a filament that is less brittle, clearer and easier to use than PET is formed. This filament is applicable in FDM or FFF technologies.

Distinct characteristics:

• This material is durable.
• It is impact-resistant and recyclable.
• It can also be sterilised.
• It has an excellent layer adhesion.
• It has a combined functionality of ABS (temperature resistant, stronger) and PLA (easy to print).

Disadvantages:

• The material can be weakened by UV light.
• It is prone to scratching.
• More testing with 3D printing parameters is needed.

10. HIPS (High Impact Polystyrene)

HIPS or High Impact Polystyrene are plastic filaments that are used for support structures in FDM printers. It comparable to ABS when it comes to ease of use. The only difference is its ability to dissolve. HIPS is completely soluble to a liquid hydrocarbon called limonene.

Distinct Characteristics:

• It has good machinability. It can also be used to make complex structures.
• It is very smooth and lightweight.
• It is water resistant and impact resistant.
• It is inexpensive.

Disadvantages:

• It produces strong fumes. Thus, it is recommended to be used in a ventilated area.
• Without constant heat flow, this material can clog up nozzle and delivery tubes of the printer.

With proper knowledge equipped and the right materials being used, industrial 3D printing can be done efficiently. As the 3D printing industry grows, more and more materials will be used for making prototypes and will be compatible with different 3D printers. As with any new processes and equipment there is a steep learning curve and this increases as you move from plastic to metal 3D Printing.

If you want to enjoy the ease of 3D printing, you can just outsource to a reliable 3D printing service provider. Your company actually doesn't need to do 3D design and printing, mechanical design and drafting, 3D design modelling services and in-house as they all can be done professionally with quality and accuracy by a local 3d printing company. 

3D Printing Materials | A wide variety of materials

Materials for 3D printing! To date, the main materials for printing on a 3D printer are PLA and ABS plastic. Both materials have long established themselves on the market and are used for printing on a 3D printer using layer-by-layer material build-up technology.

ABS (ABS) plastic is a plastic formed during the polymerization of substances such as acrylonitrile (A) with butadiene (B) and styrene (S).

PLA plastic, or biodegradable plastic as it is also called, is an aliphatic polyester with a monomer in the form of lactic acid. The materials for the production of such plastic are rapidly renewable resources - corn or sugar cane, that is, starch or cellulose.

PVA plastic. The well-known PVA glue is transferred from a dry state to a liquid of the desired consistency, then melted using special equipment and formed into PVA threads or special granules that are used for 3D printing.

An even newer material, Nylon, is resistant to a wide range of chemicals and solvents. The materials discussed above are known to everyone who is associated with the 3D technology market.

These are the most commonly used materials. But manufacturers have stepped far ahead, and are already using a wide variety of materials for printing on a 3D printer, for example, clay, resin, seaweed, and more. others

Here is a list of the most unexpected and creative 3D printing materials:

White Resin from Formlabs:

3D printing materials

3D printing equipment manufacturer Formlabs introduces a new material - White Resin ("White Resin"). The company has recently launched two new 3D printing materials, Clear Resin and Gray Resin. The main feature of the White Resin material is the striking white and opaque color of the material, as well as the exceptional smoothness of the surface of the printed object. In addition, this material is ideal for subsequent staining.

Titanium Powder for 3D Printing Auto Parts:

British metalworking company Metalysis has released a new cheap titanium powder that is suitable for 3D printing of auto parts and parts. Until now, the most popular materials for 3D printing have been plastics, due to the high cost of producing titanium powders. But recently, Metalysis has found a new, low-cost way to produce titanium powder, which could become the most sought after in the manufacture of equipment and machinery in the aerospace, defense and automotive industries.

For the production of titanium powder, Metalysis uses rutile, which is electrolyzed directly into titanium powder. This method of obtaining a powder makes it possible to change, if necessary, the size of the powder granules, its purity, morphology and the proportion of the content of alloying elements in the composition.

Metal plastic for ColorFabb 3D printer:

Materials for 3D printing

BronzeFill and CopperFill are two new filaments from the premium Dutch manufacturer colorFabb. Their key feature is the addition of bronze and copper powder to the plastic, which gives the filament additional rigidity, as well as a pleasant metallic sheen and smoothness. To the touch, the model obtained as a result of printing will very much resemble a metal one.

Bronzefill and CopperFill can be polished to a beautiful metallic sheen just like any other hard bronze and copper items. After polishing, the visible streaks that remain after printing disappear, and the bronze or copper item begins to shine.
Bronze and copper plastic for 3d printing is ideal for metal prototyping and very durable models in industry, architecture, design and other fields.

One of the most amazing materials is graphene:

3D Printing Materials

A 3D printable material with incredible potential for applications in various fields (molecular programming, solar energy, etc. ), it can change the lives of many people. In this regard, the Canadian research company Lomiko Metals Inc. announced the opening of a new special laboratory Graphene 3D Labs Inc., which will focus on the development of high-performance materials based on graphene. Information about the material: graphite or graphene is entirely composed of carbon atoms, but 1 mm of graphite contains about 3 million layers of graphene. Graphite has a three-dimensional crystal structure, while graphene is a two-dimensional crystal 1 atom thick.

3D Printer Wood Filament:

3D Printing Materials

Dutch 3D printing material company colorFabb has launched WoodFill wood filament. Wooden threads WoodFill are available in two types - Fine (Delicate) and Coarse (Rough). The main difference between these threads is the quality of processing of wood fibers. WoodFill Fine uses finely ground wood particles, WoodFill Coarse threads are thicker - based on coarsely ground wood particles. Wooden threads allow you to print beautiful and original vases, decorative elements and interior items. Finished objects are highly durable and produced in a short time. WoodFill filaments are made up of 30% pine wood fibers and 70% PLA plastic.

Seaweed 3D Printer Filament:

3D Printing Materials

Le Fabshop is the first company in the world to introduce SWF filaments - "green" filaments based on seaweed.

New materials from Proto-Pasta:

Recently, scientist Aaron Crum and mechanical engineer Dustin Crum launched the Proto-Pasta project, which developed three new materials for use in a desktop 3D printer: Carbon Fiber Reinforced PLA ( PLA reinforced with carbon fiber), High Temperature PLA (high temperature PLA) and Polycarbonate-ABS (ABS with polycarbonate alloy). Compared to all known types of plastic - ABS and PLA, the presented materials have improved performance characteristics and are affordable. Carbon Fiber Reinforced PLA is more resistant to high temperatures than regular PLA. Polycarbonate-ABS (PC-ABS) is characterized by high elasticity and bending strength.

Rubber material for stereolithography:

Materials for 3D printing

This is a rubber based material ideal for stereolithography printing, the new material has a wide color gamut, allows you to print objects in high resolution, odorless, easy to peel, available from price.

3D printing material based on silk:

3D printing materials

Another 3D printing material was created from raw silk. The raw silk has been sourced from sustainable sources and treated with epoxy. The silk-based material is flexible and highly durable, thin and light, ideal for 3D printing applications.

Polished and Raw Brass as 3D Printing Material:

3D Printing Materials

Shapeways has introduced two new materials to the world at once - Polished Brass and Raw Brass. Polished Brass is a material with a smooth, glossy bright yellow surface. Products printed with its help, then covered with 22 carat gold, are almost indistinguishable from real gold jewelry. Raw Brass is ideal for 3D printing antique or antique-style objects, and is also useful for jewelry prototyping and functional parts.

Shapeways Soft Plastic:

3D Printing Materials

Shapeways has developed a new soft plastic, Elasto Plastics, for use in the production of summer footwear. Elasto Plastics has a milky white color, the material is very flexible, has an uneven grainy surface and is quite strong.

In our online store ac5ffgxkeg.lceqo.ccwc.finefive.ru there is an excellent analogue of Elasto Plastics - this is a unique flexible plastic from a Ukrainian manufacturer - PLASTAN 9 plastic0003

The second analogue - FlexibelPolyEster (FPE) - is a rubber-like elastic plastic thread designed specifically for printing on a 3D printer

Transparent resin for a 3D printer:

3D printing materials stereolithography, according to the technology of layering transparent resin and strengthening the layers with a special laser.

3D Printing Clay:

3D Printing Materials

Design students Tina Zidancek, Danika Rzenicnik, Urška Skáza and Maja Petek from Slovenia have developed the PrintGREEN 3D printer, which can easily print objects of any shape on a substrate, covered with chia grass. "Clay" for 3D printing was obtained by mixing - water, soil and seeds.

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3D printing for "dummies" or "what is a 3D printer?"

• 1 3D printing term
• 2 3D printing methods
• 2.1 Extrusion printing
• 2.2 Melting, sintering or gluing
• 2.3 Stereolithography
• 2.4 Lamination
• 3 Fused Deposition Printing (FDM)
• 3.1 Consumables
• 3.2 Extruder
• 3.3 Working platform
• 3.4 Positioners
• 3. 5 Control
• 3.6 Varieties of
FDM printers
• 4 Laser Stereolithography (SLA)
• 4.1 Lasers and projectors
• 4.2 Cuvette and resin
• 4.3 Varieties of
Stereolithography Printers

The term 3D printing

The term 3D printing has several synonyms, one of which quite briefly and accurately characterizes the essence of the process - "additive manufacturing", that is, production by adding material. The term was not coined by chance, because this is the main difference between multiple 3D printing technologies and the usual methods of industrial production, which in turn received the name "subtractive technologies", that is, "subtractive". If during milling, grinding, cutting and other similar procedures, excess material is removed from the workpiece, then in the case of additive manufacturing, material is gradually added until a solid model is obtained.

Soon 3D printing will even be tested on the International Space Station

Strictly speaking, many traditional methods could be classified as "additive" in the broad sense of the word - for example, casting or riveting. However, it should be borne in mind that in these cases, either the consumption of materials is required for the manufacture of specific tools used in the production of specific parts (as in the case of casting), or the whole process is reduced to joining ready-made parts (welding, riveting, etc.). In order for the technology to be classified as “3D printing”, the final product must be built from raw materials, not blanks, and the formation of objects must be arbitrary - that is, without the use of forms. The latter means that additive manufacturing requires a software component. Roughly speaking, additive manufacturing requires computer control so that the shape of final products can be determined by building digital models. It was this factor that delayed the widespread adoption of 3D printing until the moment when numerical control and 3D design became widely available and highly productive.

3D printing techniques

There are a lot of 3D printing technologies, and even more names for them due to patent restrictions. However, you can try to divide technologies into main areas:

Extrusion printing

This includes methods such as deposition fusion (FDM) and multi-jet printing (MJM). This method is based on the extrusion (extrusion) of consumables with the sequential formation of the finished product. As a rule, consumables consist of thermoplastics or composite materials based on them.

Melting, sintering or bonding

This approach is based on bonding powdered material together. Formation is done in different ways. The simplest is gluing, as is the case with 3D inkjet printing (3DP). Such printers deposit thin layers of powder onto the build platform, which are then selectively bonded with a binder. Powders can be made up of virtually any material that can be ground to a powder—plastic, wood, metal.

This model of James Bond's Aston Martin was successfully printed on a Voxeljet SLS printer and blown up just as successfully during the filming of Skyfall instead of the expensive original

sintering (SLS and DMLS) and smelting (SLM), which allow you to create all-metal parts. As with 3D inkjet printing, these devices apply thin layers of powder, but the material is not glued together, but sintered or melted using a laser. Laser sintering (SLS) is used to work with both plastic and metal powders, although metal pellets usually have a more fusible shell, and after printing they are additionally sintered in special ovens. DMLS is a variant of SLS installations with more powerful lasers that allow sintering metal powders directly without additives. SLM printers provide not just sintering of particles, but their complete melting, which allows you to create monolithic models that do not suffer from the relative fragility caused by the porosity of the structure. As a rule, printers for working with metal powders are equipped with vacuum working chambers, or they replace air with inert gases. Such a complication of the design is caused by the need to work with metals and alloys subject to oxidation - for example, with titanium.

Stereolithography

How an SLA printer works

Stereolithography printers use special liquid materials called "photopolymer resins". The term "photopolymerization" refers to the ability of a material to harden when exposed to light. As a rule, such materials react to ultraviolet irradiation.

Resin is poured into a special container with a movable platform, which is installed in a position near the surface of the liquid. The layer of resin covering the platform corresponds to one layer of the digital model. Then a thin layer of resin is processed by a laser beam, hardening at the points of contact. At the end of illumination, the platform together with the finished layer is immersed to the thickness of the next layer, and illumination is performed again.

Lamination

Laminating (LOM) 3D printers workflow

Some 3D printers build models using sheet materials - paper, foil, plastic film.

Layers of material are glued on top of each other and cut along the contours of the digital model using a laser or a blade.

These machines are well suited for prototyping and can use very cheap consumables, including regular office paper. However, the complexity and noise of these printers, coupled with the limitations of the models they produce, limit their popularity.

Fused deposition modeling (FDM) and laser stereolithography (SLA) have become the most popular 3D printing methods used in the home and office.

Let's take a closer look at these technologies.

Fused Deposition Printing (FDM)

FDM is perhaps the simplest and most affordable 3D printing method, which makes it very popular.
High demand for FDM printers is driving device and consumable prices down rapidly, along with technology advances towards ease of use and improved reliability.

Consumables

ABS filament spool and finished model

FDM printers are designed to print with thermoplastics, which are usually supplied as thin filaments wound on spools. The range of "clean" plastics is very wide. One of the most popular materials is polylactide or "PLA plastic". This material is made from corn or sugar cane, which makes it non-toxic and environmentally friendly, but makes it relatively short-lived. ABS plastic, on the other hand, is very durable and wear-resistant, although it is susceptible to direct sunlight and can release small amounts of harmful fumes when heated. Many plastic items that we use on a daily basis are made from this material: housings for household appliances, plumbing fixtures, plastic cards, toys, etc.

In addition to PLA and ABS, printing is possible with nylon, polycarbonate, polyethylene and many other thermoplastics that are widely used in modern industry. More exotic materials are also possible, such as polyvinyl alcohol, known as "PVA plastic". This material dissolves in water, which makes it very useful for printing complex geometric patterns. But more on that below.

Model made from Laywoo-D3. Changing the extrusion temperature allows you to achieve different shades and simulate annual rings

It is not necessary to print with homogeneous plastics. It is also possible to use composite materials imitating wood, metals, stone. Such materials use all the same thermoplastics, but with impurities of non-plastic materials.

So, Laywoo-D3 consists partly of natural wood dust, which allows you to print "wooden" products, including furniture.

The material called BronzeFill is filled with real bronze, and models made from it can be ground and polished, achieving a high similarity to products made from pure bronze.

One has only to remember that thermoplastics serve as a binding element in composite materials - they determine the thresholds of strength, thermal stability and other physical and chemical properties of finished models.

Extruder

Extruder - FDM print head. Strictly speaking, this is not entirely true, because the head consists of several parts, of which only the feed mechanism is directly "extruder". However, by tradition, the term "extruder" is commonly used as a synonym for the entire print assembly.

FDM extruder general design

The extruder is designed for melting and applying thermoplastic thread. The first component is the thread feed mechanism, which consists of rollers and gears driven by an electric motor. The mechanism feeds the thread into a special heated metal tube with a small diameter nozzle, called a "hot end" or simply a "nozzle". The same mechanism is used to remove the thread if a change of material is needed.

The hot end is used to heat and melt the thread fed by the puller. As a rule, nozzles are made from brass or aluminum, although more heat-resistant, but also more expensive materials can be used. For printing with the most popular plastics, a brass nozzle is quite enough. The “nozzle” itself is attached to the end of the tube with a threaded connection and can be replaced with a new one in case of wear or if a change in diameter is necessary. The nozzle diameter determines the thickness of the molten filament and, as a result, affects the print resolution. The heating of the hot end is controlled by a thermistor. Temperature control is very important, because when the material is overheated, pyrolysis can occur, that is, the decomposition of plastic, which contributes both to the loss of the properties of the material itself and to clogging of the nozzle.

PrintBox3D One FDM Extruder

To prevent the filament from melting too early, the top of the hot end is cooled by heatsinks and fans. This point is of great importance, since thermoplastics that pass the glass transition temperature significantly expand in volume and increase the friction of the material with the walls of the hot end. If the length of such a section is too long, the pulling mechanism may not have enough strength to push the thread.

The number of extruders may vary depending on the purpose of the 3D printer. The simplest options use a single printhead. The dual extruder greatly expands the capabilities of the device, allowing you to print one model in two different colors, as well as using different materials. The last point is important when building complex models with overhanging structural elements: FDM printers cannot print “over the air”, since the applied layers require support. In the case of hinged elements, temporary support structures have to be printed, which are removed after printing is completed. The removal process is fraught with damage to the model itself and requires accuracy. In addition, if the model has a complex structure with internal cavities that are difficult to access, building conventional supports may not be practical due to the difficulty in removing excess material.

Finished model with PVA supports (white) before and after washing

In such cases, the same water-soluble polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) comes in handy. Using a dual extruder, you can build a model from waterproof thermoplastic using PVA to create supports.

After printing, PVA can simply be dissolved in water and a complex product of perfect quality can be obtained.

Some FDM printers can use three or even four extruders.

Working platform

Heated platform covered with removable glass work table

Models are built on a special platform, often equipped with heating elements. Preheating is required for a wide range of plastics, including the popular ABS, which are subject to a high degree of shrinkage when cooled. The rapid loss of volume by cold coats compared to freshly applied material can lead to model distortion or delamination. The heating of the platform makes it possible to significantly equalize the temperature gradient between the upper and lower layers.

Heating is not recommended for some materials. A typical example is PLA plastic, which requires a fairly long time to harden. Heating PLA can lead to deformation of the lower layers under the weight of the upper ones. When working with PLA, measures are usually taken not to heat up, but to cool the model. Such printers have characteristic open cases and additional fans blowing fresh layers of the model.

Calibration screw for work platform covered with blue masking tape

The platform needs to be calibrated before printing to ensure that the nozzle does not hit the applied layers and move too far causing air-to-air printing resulting in plastic vermicelli. The calibration process can be either manual or automatic. In manual mode, calibration is performed by positioning the nozzle at different points on the platform and adjusting the platform inclination using the support screws to achieve the optimal distance between the surface and the nozzle.

As a rule, platforms are equipped with an additional element - a removable table. This design simplifies the cleaning of the working surface and facilitates the removal of the finished model. Stages are made from various materials, including aluminum, acrylic, glass, etc. The choice of material for the manufacture of the stage depends on the presence of heating and consumables for which the printer is optimized.

For a better adhesion of the first layer of the model to the surface of the table, additional tools are often used, including polyimide film, glue and even hairspray! But the most popular tool is inexpensive, but effective masking tape. Some manufacturers make perforated tables that hold the model well but are difficult to clean. In general, the expediency of applying additional funds to the table depends on the consumable material and the material of the table itself.

Positioning mechanisms

Scheme of positioning mechanisms

Of course, the print head must move relative to the working platform, and unlike conventional office printers, positioning must be carried out not in two, but in three planes, including height adjustment.

Positioning pattern may vary. The simplest and most common option involves mounting the print head on perpendicular guides driven by stepper motors and providing positioning along the X and Y axes.

Vertical positioning is carried out by moving the working platform.

On the other hand, it is possible to move the extruder in one plane and the platforms in two.

SeemeCNC ORION Delta Printer

One option that is gaining popularity is the delta coordinate system.

Such devices are called "delta robots" in the industry.

In delta printers, the print head is suspended on three manipulators, each of which moves along a vertical rail.

The synchronous symmetrical movement of the manipulators allows you to change the height of the extruder above the platform, and the asymmetric movement causes the head to move in the horizontal plane.

A variant of this system is the reverse delta design, where the extruder is fixed to the ceiling of the working chamber, and the platform moves on three support arms.

Delta printers have a cylindrical build area, and their design makes it easy to increase the height of the working area with minimal design changes by lengthening the rails.

In the end, everything depends on the decision of the designers, but the fundamental principle does not change.

Control

Typical Arduino-based controller with add-on modules

FDM printer operation, including nozzle and platform temperature, filament feed rate, and stepper motors for positioning the extruder, is controlled by fairly simple electronic controllers. Most controllers are based on the Arduino platform, which has an open architecture.

The programming language used by printers is called G-code (G-Code) and consists of a list of commands executed in turn by the 3D printer systems. G-code is compiled by programs called "slicers" - standard 3D printer software that combines some of the features of graphics editors with the ability to set print options through a graphical interface. The choice of slicer depends on the printer model. RepRap printers use open source slicers such as Skeinforge, Replicator G and Repetier-Host. Some companies make printers that require proprietary software.

Program code for printing is generated using slicers

As an example, we can mention Cube printers from 3D Systems. There are companies that offer proprietary software but allow third-party software, as is the case with the latest generation of MakerBot 3D printers.

Slicers are not designed for 3D design per se. This task is done with CAD editors and requires some 3D design skills. Although beginners should not despair: digital models of a wide variety of designs are offered on many sites, often even for free. Finally, some companies and individuals offer 3D design services for custom printing.

Finally, 3D printers can be used in conjunction with 3D scanners to automate the process of digitizing objects. Many of these devices are designed specifically to work with 3D printers. Notable examples include the 3D Systems Sense handheld scanner and the MakerBot Digitizer handheld desktop scanner.

MakerBot Replicator 5th Generation FDM Printer with built-in control module on the top of the frame

The user interface of a 3D printer can consist of a simple USB port for connecting to a personal computer. In such cases, the device is actually controlled by the slicer.

The disadvantage of this simplification is a rather high probability of printing failure when the computer freezes or slows down.

A more advanced option includes an internal memory or memory card interface to make the process standalone.

These models are equipped with control modules that allow you to adjust many print parameters (such as print speed or extrusion temperature). The module may include a small LCD display or even a mini-tablet.

Varieties of FDM printers

Stratasys Fortus 360mc professional FDM printer that allows printing with nylon

FDM printers are very, very diverse, ranging from the simplest home-made RepRap printers to industrial installations capable of printing large-sized objects.

Stratasys, founded by FDM inventor Scott Crump, is a leader in industrial plant manufacturing.

You can build the simplest FDM printers yourself. Such devices are called RepRap, where "Rep" indicates the possibility of "replication", that is, self-reproduction.

RepRap printers can be used to print custom built plastic parts.

Controller, rails, belts, motors and other components can be easily purchased separately.

Of course, assembling such a device on your own requires serious technical and even engineering skills.

Some manufacturers make it easy by selling DIY kits, but these kits still require a good understanding of the technology.

A variant of the popular late 3rd generation Prusa RepRap printer

If you like to make things yourself, then RepRap printers will pleasantly please you with the price: the average cost of the popular early generation Prusa Mendel design is about $500 in a complete set.

And, despite their "homemade nature", RepRap printers are quite capable of producing models with quality at the level of expensive branded counterparts.

Ordinary users who do not want to delve into the intricacies of the process, but require only a convenient device for household use, can purchase a ready-made FDM printer.

Many companies are focusing on the development of the consumer market segment, offering 3D printers for sale that are ready to print “straight out of the box” and do not require serious computer skills.

3D Systems Cube consumer 3D printer

The most famous example of a consumer 3D printer is the 3D Systems Cube.

While it doesn't boast a huge build area, ultra-fast print speed, or superb model build quality, it's easy to use, affordable, and safe: This printer has received the necessary certification to be used even by children.

Mankati FDM printer demonstration: http://youtu. be/51rypJIK4y0

Laser Stereolithography (SLA)

Stereolithographic 3D printers are widely used in dental prosthetics

Stereolithographic printers are the second most popular and widespread after FDM printers.

These units deliver exceptional print quality.

The resolution of some SLA printers is measured in a matter of microns - it is not surprising that these devices quickly won the love of jewelers and dentists.

The software side of laser stereolithography is almost identical to FDM printing, so we will not repeat ourselves and will only touch on the distinctive features of the technology.

Lasers and projectors

Projector illumination of a photopolymer model using Kudo3D Titan DLP printer as an example

The cost of stereolithography printers is rapidly declining due to growing competition due to high demand and the use of new technologies that reduce the cost of construction.

Although the technology is collectively referred to as "laser" stereolithography, most recent developments use UV LED projectors for the most part.

Projectors are cheaper and more reliable than lasers, do not require the use of delicate mirrors to deflect the laser beam, and have higher performance. The latter is explained by the fact that the contour of the whole layer is illuminated as a whole, and not sequentially, point by point, as is the case with laser options. This variant of the technology is called projection stereolithography, "DLP-SLA" or simply "DLP". However, both options are currently common - both laser and projector versions.

Cuvette and resin

Photopolymer resin is poured into the cuvette

A photopolymer resin that looks like epoxy is used as consumables for stereolithography printers. Resins can have a variety of characteristics, but they all share one key feature for 3D printing applications: these materials harden when exposed to ultraviolet light. Hence, in fact, the name "photopolymer".

When polymerized, resins can have a wide variety of physical characteristics. Some resins are like rubber, others are hard plastics like ABS. You can choose different colors and degrees of transparency. The main disadvantage of resins and SLA printing in general is the cost of consumables, which significantly exceeds the cost of thermoplastics.

On the other hand, stereolithographic printers are mainly used by jewelers and dentists who do not need to build large parts but appreciate the savings from fast and accurate prototyping. Thus, SLA printers and consumables pay for themselves very quickly.

An example of a model printed on a laser stereolithographic 3D printer

Resin is poured into a cuvette, which can be equipped with a lowering platform. In this case, the printer uses a leveling device to flatten the thin layer of resin covering the platform just prior to irradiation. As the model is being made, the platform, together with the finished layers, is “embedded” in the resin. Upon completion of printing, the model is removed from the cuvette, treated with a special solution to remove liquid resin residues and placed in an ultraviolet oven, where the final illumination of the model is performed.

Some SLA and DLP printers work in an "inverted" scheme: the model is not immersed in the consumable, but "pulled" out of it, while the laser or projector is placed under the cuvette, and not above it. This approach eliminates the need to level the surface after each exposure, but requires the use of a cuvette made of a material transparent to ultraviolet light, such as quartz glass.

The accuracy of stereolithographic printers is extremely high. For comparison, the standard for vertical resolution for FDM printers is considered to be 100 microns, and some variants of SLA printers allow you to apply layers as thin as 15 microns. But this is not the limit. The problem, rather, is not so much in the accuracy of lasers, but in the speed of the process: the higher the resolution, the lower the print speed. The use of digital projectors allows you to significantly speed up the process, because each layer is illuminated entirely. As a result, some DLP printer manufacturers claim to be able to print with a vertical resolution of one micron!

Video from CES 2013 showing Formlabs Form1 stereolithography 3D printer in action: http://youtu.be/IjaUasw64VE

Stereolithography Printer Options

Formlabs Form1 Desktop Stereolithography Printer

As with FDM printers, SLA printers come in a wide range in terms of size, features and cost. Professional installations can cost tens if not hundreds of thousands of dollars and weigh a couple of tons, but the rapid development of desktop SLA and DLP printers is gradually reducing the cost of equipment without compromising print quality.

Models such as the Titan 1 promise to make stereolithographic 3D printing affordable for small businesses and even home use at around $1,000.

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