Motley fool 3d printers

Metal casting with 3D printed ceramic shell

CAD model used for 3D printing. The process of manually modeling the preparation of geometric data for 3D computer graphics is similar to plastic arts such as sculpture. 3D scanning is the process of collecting digital data about the shape and appearance of a real object, creating a digital model based on it.

A variety of processes, equipment, and materials are used in the production of a three-dimensional object through the production of additives. 3D printing is also known as additive manufacturing, so the numerous 3D printing processes available tend to be additive in nature, with some key differences in the technologies and materials used in the process.

Some of the different types of physical transformations that are used in 3D printing include melt extrusion, light curing, continuous liquid interface, and sintering.

Content

• 1 Types of processes 3D print
• 2 Processes
  • 2.1 Material extrusion
  • 2.2 Powder Fusion
  • 2.3 Spraying the binding
  • 2.4 Stereolitography
  • 2.5 COMPLY0016
  • 2.6 Production of liquid additives
  • 2.7 Laminating
  • 2.8 Directed energy deposit (DED)
    • 2.8.1 Powdered deposition of directed energy
    • 2.8.2 Metal wire processing
  • 3 Printers 9.1
  • 3.2 Consumer use
  • 3.3 Large 3D printers
  • 3.4 Microscale and nanoscale 3D printing
• 4 Recommendations
• 5 Further reading
• 6 See also

Types of 3D printing processes

There are many different 3D printing processes that can be divided into seven categories: ^[1]

• Photopolymerization of VAT
• Inkjet Technology (Single and Multiple Jet Inkjet)
• Binder Spray
• Fusion Powder Bed
• Material Extrusion
• Directed Energy Release
• Sheet laminating

Each process and equipment has its pros and cons. These typically include aspects such as speed, cost, raw material versatility, geometric constraints and tolerances, as well as mechanical and external product properties such as strength, texture and color.

The variety of processes and equipment allows it to be used by amateurs and professionals alike. Some of them are better suited for industrial use (in this case, the term “additive manufacturing” is preferable), while others make 3D printing accessible to the average consumer. Some printers are large enough to fabricate buildings, while others tend to create micro- and nano-sized objects, and in general many different technologies can be used to physically create the designed objects. ^[2]

Processes

Several 3D printing processes have been invented since the late 1970s. ^[3] Printers were originally large, expensive, and very limited in what they could produce. ^[4]

A large number of additive processes are now available. The main differences between the processes are in the way the layers are applied to create the parts and in the materials used. Some methods, for example, melt or soften the material to create layers. Selective Laser Melting (SLM) or Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS), Selective Laser Sintering (SLS), Fused Deposition Simulation (FDM), ^{[5] [6]} or fused fiber fabrication (FFF), while others solidify liquid materials using various sophisticated techniques such as stereolithography (SLA). With the manufacture of laminate products (LOM), thin layers are cut into shapes and bonded together (eg paper, polymer, metal). Each method has its own advantages and disadvantages, so some companies offer a choice of powder and polymer as the material from which the object is built. ^[7] Others sometimes use standard ready-made business paper as the material to make a durable prototype. The main considerations when choosing a machine are usually speed, the cost of a 3D printer, a printed prototype, the choice and cost of materials, and color options. ^[8]

Printers that work directly with metals are usually expensive. However, less expensive printers can be used to make the mold, which are then used to make metal parts. Metal-binder mixes (including Metal Clay and Precious Metal Clay), Ceramic-Binder mixes (including Clay Ceramic and Suspension Ceramic), Metal-Ceramic, Metal Matrix Composite, Ceramic Matrix Composite, Metal ( MIG welding ) ^[10] Composite fiber manufacturing (CFF) Nylon or nylon with short carbon fiber + carbon, kevlar, glass and glass reinforcement for high temperature fiber ³ ) Virtually any metal alloy

Material extrusion

Schematic illustration of extrusion deposit; thread a) plastic is fed through a heated movable head b) which melts and extrudes it, depositing layer by layer in the desired form c) . Moving platform e) is lowered after each layer is applied. For such equipment, additional vertical support structures d) needed to support overhanging parts

Main article: Fused deposition simulation

Slow motion video of the robot model (Make Log logo) printed using FDM on a Fisher RepRapPro printer.

Fused fiber fabrication ( FFF ), also known by the trademark Fused deposition simulation gaskets. This principle was further developed by S. Scott Crump at the end of 1980s and commercialized in 1990 by Stratasys. ^[12] Since the patent for this technology has expired, a large community of open source developers has emerged. DIY variants using this type of 3D printer became known as the RepRap project (for a self-replicating rapid prototype). As a result, the price of this technology has fallen by two orders of magnitude since its inception, and it has become the most common form of 3D printing. ^[13]

In one method, 3D nanostructures can be printed by physically moving a dynamic screen mask during the material deposition process, which is somewhat similar to the extrusion method of traditional 3D printers. Programmable height nanostructures with a resolution of only 10 nm have been obtained in this way by physical metal vapor deposition. A stencil mask controlled by a mechanical piezoactuator with a milled nanopore in a silicon nitride membrane. 9Kelly, Brett E.; Bhattacharya, Indrasen; Heidari, Hossein; Shusteff, Maxim; Spadaccini, Christopher M.; Taylor, Hayden K. (2019-01-31). "Volumetric additive manufacturing via tomographic reconstruction". Science . 363 (6431): 1075–1079. Bibcode:2019Sci...363.1075K. Doi:10.1126/science.aau7114. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 30705152. 9 Grant-Jacob, James A.; Mills, Benjamin; Feinaeugle, Matthias; Sones, Collin L.; Oosterhuis, Gerrit; Hoppenbrouwers, Marc B.; Eason, Robert W. (2013-06-01). "Micron-scale copper wires printed using femtosecond laser-induced forward transfer with automated donor replenishment" (PDF). Optical Materials Express . 3 (6): 747. Bibcode:2013OMExp...3..747G. Doi:10.1364/ome.3.000747. ISSN 2159-3930.

Further reading

• Beaumont Newhall (May 1958) "Photosculpture," Image , 7 (5) : 100–105 Archived 2013-10-04 at the Wayback Machine
• François Willème, "Photo-sculpture," U. S. Patent no. 43,822 (August 9, 1864). Available online at: U.S. Patent 43,822
• François Willème (May 15, 1861) "La sculpture photographique", Le Moniteur de la photographie , p. 34.
• "Rapid Prototyping in Europe and Japan" (PDF). JTEC/WTEC Panel Report. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-08-30. Retrieved December 28, 2016.

  Fuel cells have been used in various types of vehicles, including forklifts, especially indoors where their net emissions are important for air quality and in space applications. The first commercially produced hydrogen fuel cell vehicle, the Toyota Mirai, was introduced in 2015, followed by Hyundai and Honda entering the market. Fuel cells are also being developed and tested in trucks, buses, boats, motorcycles and bicycles, among other types of vehicles.

  As of 2017, there was a limited hydrogen infrastructure with 36 hydrogen fueling stations for vehicles publicly available in the US, however more hydrogen power stations are planned, especially in California. There are some public hydrogen filling stations, and new stations are planned in Japan, Europe and other countries. Critics question whether hydrogen will be efficient or economical for cars compared to other zero-emission technologies.

  Description and purpose of fuel cells in vehicles
  All fuel cells consist of three parts: electrolyte, anode and cathode. In principle, a hydrogen fuel cell functions like a battery, generating electricity that can run on an electric motor. However, instead of needing to be recharged, the fuel cell can be fueled with hydrogen. Various types of fuel cells include polymer electrolyte membranes (PEM), direct methanol fuel cells, phosphoric acid fuel cells, molten carbonate fuel cells, solid oxide fuel cells, reformed methanol fuel cell, and regenerative fuel cells.

  history
  The fuel cell concept was first demonstrated by Humphry Davy in 1801, but the invention of the first working fuel cell has been credited to William Grove, a chemist, lawyer and physicist. Grove's experiments with what he called a "gas battery" proved in 1842 that an electric current could be produced by an electrochemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen over a platinum catalyst. The first modern fuel cell vehicle was a modified Allis-Chalmers farm tractor fitted with a 15 kilowatt fuel cell, about 1959 years old The space race of the Cold War contributed to the further development of fuel cell technology. The Gemini project has tested fuel cells to provide electrical power during manned space flights. Fuel cell development continued as part of the Apollo program. The electrical systems in the Apollo capsules and lunar modules used alkaline fuel cells. In 1966, General Motors developed the first fuel cell automobile, the Chevrolet Electrovan. It had a PEM fuel cell, a range of 120 miles and a top speed of 70 miles per hour. There were only two seats as a stack of fuel cells and large tanks of hydrogen and oxygen occupied the back of the van. Only one was built, as the project was considered a lien.

  General Electric and others continued to operate on PEM fuel cells into the 1970s. Fuel cell containers continued to be limited mainly to space applications in the 1980s, including the space shuttle. However, the closure of the Apollo program sent many industry experts to private companies. By the 1990s, car manufacturers were interested in fuel cell applications and demonstrator cars were being prepared. In 2001, the first 700 bar (10,000 psi) hydrogen tanks were demonstrated, reducing the size of the fuel tanks that could be used in vehicles and expanding the range.

  Applications
  There are fuel cell vehicles for all modes of transport. The most common fuel cell vehicles are cars, buses, forklifts and material handling vehicles.

  Cars
  The Honda FCX Clarity Concept was introduced in 2008 for leasing by customers in Japan and Southern California and discontinued by 2015. From 2008 to 2014, Honda leased a total of 45 FCX units in the US. Over 20 other FCEV prototypes and demonstrators were produced during this period, including the GM HydroGen4 and the Mercedes-Benz F-Cell.

  The Hyundai ix35 FCEV Fuel Cell has been available for rent since 2014 with 54 units.

  Sales of the Toyota Mirai to government and corporate customers began in Japan in December 2014. Prices started at ¥6,700,000 (~US$57,400) before taxes and a 2,000,000 yen (~US$19,600) government incentive. Former President of the European Parliament Pat Cox has suggested that Toyota will initially lose about $100,000 for every Mirai sold. As of December 2017, worldwide sales were 5,300 worlds. Top selling markets were USA with 2.900 units, Japan from 2100 and Europe from 200.

  Retail deliveries of the 2017 Honda Clarity Fuel Cell began in California in December 2016. The Clarity fuel cell, with a range of 366 miles (589 km), has the highest EPA range rating of any zero-emission vehicle in the US, including cell and battery electric vehicle fuel. The 2017 Brightness also has the highest combined and city fuel economy ratings of any EPA-rated hydrogen fuel cell vehicle, with a combined city/highway rating of 67 miles per gallon equivalent (MPGe) and 68 MPGe in city traffic.

  In 2017, Daimler abandoned FCEV development, citing lower battery costs and increased EV range, and most automotive companies developing hydrogen vehicles have shifted their focus to battery electric vehicles.

  Fuel Economy
  The following table compares EPA fuel economy expressed in gasoline equivalent per kilogram per gallon (MPGe) for hydrogen fuel cell vehicles rated by the EPA as of December 2016 and available only in California.

  Fuel cell powered by ethanol reformer
  In June 2016, Nissan announced plans to develop fuel cell vehicles that run on ethanol instead of hydrogen. Nissan claims that this technical approach would be cheaper and easier to deploy refueling infrastructure than hydrogen infrastructure. The vehicle will include a tank containing a mixture of water and ethanol, which is fed into an onboard reformer that separates it into hydrogen and carbon dioxide. The hydrogen is then fed into the solid oxide fuel cell. According to Nissan, the liquid fuel can be a 55:45 mixture of ethanol and water. Nissan plans to commercialize its technology by 2020.

  Buses
  Demonstration buses also exist, and in 2011 over 100 fuel cell buses were deployed worldwide. Most of these buses were made by UTC Power, Toyota, Ballard, Hydrogenics and Proton Motor. UTC buses have accumulated over 970,000 km (600,000 miles) of driving. Fuel cell buses have 30-141% fuel savings than diesel buses and natural gas buses. Fuel cell buses have been deployed in Whistler Canada, San Francisco, USA, Hamburg, Shanghai, London, England, Sao Paulo and other cities. The Whistler project was terminated in 2015. The Fuel Cell Bus Club is a global collaborative effort in fuel cell trial buses. Notable projects include:

  12 Fuel cell buses have been deployed in the Oakland and San Francisco area of ​​California. Daimler AG's
  completed a successful three-year trial in eleven cities in 2007 with thirty-six experimental buses based on Ballard Power Systems fuel cells.
  A fleet of UTC Power fuel cell Thor buses deployed to California operated by the SunLine Transit Agency.
  Brazil's first hydrogen fuel cell tire prototype has been deployed in Sao Paulo. The bus was made in Caxias do Sul, and the hydrogen fuel was to be produced in São Bernardo do Campo from water through electrolysis. The program, called "Ônibus Brasileiro a Hidrogênio" (Brazilian Hydrogen Bus), included three buses.

  Forklift
  Fuel cell forklift (also called fuel cell forklift or fuel cell forklift) is an industrial fuel cell forklift used for lifting and transporting materials. Most fuel cells used in forklifts are powered by PEM fuel cells.

  In 2013, over 4,000 fuel elevators used in material handling were in operation in the US, of which only 500 received funding from DOE (2012). Fuel cell fleets are operated by a large number of companies including Sysco Foods, FedEx Freight, GENCO (from Wegmans, Coca-Cola, Kimberly Clark and Whole Foods) and HEB Grocers. Europe demonstrated 30 fuel cell forklifts with Hylift and expanded with HyLIFT-EUROPE to 200 units, with other projects in France and Austria. Pike Research stated in 2011 that fuel cell forklifts will be the largest driver of hydrogen fuel demand by 2020.

  PEM fuel cell forklift trucks offer significant advantages over petrol forklift trucks because they produce no local emissions. Fuel cell forklifts can run a full 8-hour shift on a single tank of hydrogen, can refuel in 3 minutes, and have a lifespan of 8-10 years. Fuel cell motorized forklifts are often used in refrigerated warehouses because their performance does not degrade at lower temperatures. In design, FC blocks are often made as replacements for replacements.

  Motorcycles and bicycles
  In 2005, the British firm Intelligent Energy launched the world's first working hydrogen motorcycle called ENV (Emission Neutral Vehicle). The motorcycle contains enough fuel to run for four hours and travel 160 km (100 miles) in urban areas with a top speed of 80 km/h (50 mph). In 2004, Honda developed a fuel cell motorcycle that used the Honda FC Stack. There are other examples of hydrogen fuel cell powered bicycles and bicycles. Suzuki Burgman has received "whole vehicle" approval in the EU. Taiwanese company APFCT is conducting a live street test using 80 motorized fuel cells for the Taiwan Energy Bureau using a fueling system from Italy's Acta SpA.

  aircraft
  Boeing researchers and industry partners across Europe conducted experimental flight tests in February 2008 of a manned aircraft powered only by fuel cells and light batteries. The fuel cell demonstrator aircraft, as it was called, used a hybrid proton-exchange fuel cell/lithium ion battery (PEM) system to power an electric motor that was connected to a conventional propeller. In 2003, the world's first propeller-driven aircraft was taken, which was completely powered by a fuel cell. The fuel cell was a unique FlatStack stack design that allowed the integration of the fuel cell with plane airfoils.

  There were several fuel cell unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). In 2007, Horizon fuel cell UAVs set a record flow rate for a small UAV. Military personnel are particularly interested in this application due to low noise levels, low thermal signature, and the ability to reach high altitudes. In 2009, the Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) Ion-Tiger used a hydrogen fuel cell and flew for 23 hours and 17 minutes. Boeing is completing Phantom Eye, Altitude and Long Endurance (HALE) tests to be used for research and surveillance flying at 20,000 m (65,000 ft) for four days at a time. Fuel cells are also being used to provide additional power to aircraft, replacing fossil fuel generators previously used to start engines and power on board. Fuel cells can help aircraft reduce CO2 and other pollutant emissions and noise.

  boats
  The world's first HYDRA fuel cell used an AFC system with a net power of 6.5 kW. For every liter of fuel consumed, the average engine produces 140 times less hydrocarbons than the average modern car. Fuel cell engines have higher energy efficiency than internal combustion engines and therefore offer better range and significantly reduce emissions. Iceland has committed to converting its huge fishing fleet to use fuel cells to provide auxiliary power by 2015 and eventually provide main power to its boats. Amsterdam recently unveiled its first fuel cell powered boat that ferries people around the city's famous and beautiful canals.

  Submarines
  The first submersible application of fuel cells is the German Type 212 submarine. Each Type 212 contains nine PEM fuel cells distributed throughout the vessel, providing between 30 kW and 50 kW of electricity. This allows Type 212s to stay submerged longer and makes them harder to detect. Fuel cell submarines are also easier to design, manufacture and maintain than nuclear submarines.

  Trains
  In March 2015, China South Rail Corporation (CSR) demonstrated the world's first hydrogen fuel cell tram at its assembly facility in Qingdao. Chief Engineer of CSR subsidiary Sifang Co Ltd. Liang Jianyin said the company is studying how to reduce the running costs of the tram. In total, 83 miles of track for the new vehicle were built in seven Chinese cities. China plans to spend 200 billion yuan ($32 billion) over the next five years to expand tram lines to more than 1,200 miles.

  In 2016, Alstom debuted the Coradia iLint, a regional hydrogen fuel cell train that will be the world's first algae plant. Coradia iLint will be able to reach 140 kilometers per hour (87 mph) and travel 600-800 kilometers (370-500 miles) on a full tank of hydrogen. The first Coradia iLint is expected to enter service in December 2017 on the Buxtehude-Bremervörde-Bremerhaven-Cuxhaven line in Lower Saxony, Germany.

  Hydrogen infrastructure
  Eberle and Rittmar von Helmolt stated in 2010 that challenges remain before fuel cell vehicles can become competitive with other technologies and result in a lack of a broad hydrogen infrastructure in the US: as of July 2017, there were 36 publicly available hydrogen filling stations in the US, 32 of which were located in California. In 2013, Governor Jerry Brown signed AB 8, a bill to fund $20 million a year for 10 years to build up to 100 stations. In 2014, the California Energy Commission allocated $46.6 million to build 28 plants.

  Japan received its first commercial hydrogen filling station in 2014. By March 2016, there were 80 hydrogen filling stations in Japan, and the Japanese government aims to double that number to 160 by 2020. In May 2017, there were 91 hydrogen filling stations in Japan. In July 2015, there were 18 public hydrogen filling stations in Germany. The German government hoped to increase this number to 50 by the end of 2016, but only 30 were opened in June 2017.

  Codes and standards
  Fuel cell vehicle is a classification in hydrogen hydrogen codes and standards and fuel cell codes and standards, other main standards are stationary fuel cell applications and portable fuel cell applications.

  US programs
  In 2003, US President George W. Bush proposed the Hydrogen Fuel Initiative (HFI). HFI aims to further develop hydrogen fuel cells and infrastructure technologies to accelerate the commercial adoption of fuel cell vehicles. By 2008, the US contributed $1 billion to this project. In 2009Steven Chu, then US Secretary of Energy, argued that hydrogen vehicles "won't be practical for the next 10 to 20 years." In 2012, however, Chu stated that he saw fuel cell vehicles as more economically feasible, as natural gas prices fell and hydrogen conversion technologies improved. In June 2013, the California Energy Commission provided $18.7 million. USA for hydrogen filling stations. In 2013, Governor Brown signed AB 8, a bill to fund $20 million a year for 10 years for 100 stations. In 2013, the US Department of Energy announced that it had reached $4 million. United States planned for "further development of advanced hydrogen storage systems." On May 13, 2013, the Department of Energy launched h3USA, which is focused on advancing hydrogen infrastructure in the US.

  Cost
  By 2010, advances in fuel cell technology had reduced the size, weight and cost of fuel cell electric vehicles. In 2010, the US Department of Energy (DOE) estimated that the cost of automotive fuel cells had fallen from 80% to 80% since 2002 and that such fuel cells could be made at US$51/kW, assuming large manufacturing cost savings. Fuel cell electric vehicles have been manufactured with "a range of more than 250 miles between refuellings". They can be refueled in less than 5 minutes. Deployed fuel cell buses have 40% fuel savings compared to diesel buses. The EERE Fuel Cell Program states that since 2011, fuel cells have achieved fuel cell electric vehicle efficiency of 42 to 53% at full power and a durability of more than 75,000 miles with less than 10% voltage degradation, double that of 2006. In 2012 Lux Research, Inc. released a report concluding that by 2030 the cost of capital … will limit adoption to just 5.9GW, which would provide "an almost insurmountable barrier to adoption, except for niche applications." Lux analysis showed that by 2030, applications for stationary PEM fuel cells will reach $1 billion, while the automotive market, including fuel cell forklifts, will reach a total of $2 billion.

  Environmental impact
  The environmental impact of fuel cell vehicles depends on the primary energy from which hydrogen is produced. Fuel cell vehicles are only environmentally friendly when producing hydrogen using renewable energy. If so, fuel cell vehicles are cleaner and more efficient than fossil fuel vehicles. However, they are not as efficient as electric vehicle batteries, which use much less energy. Typically, a fuel cell vehicle consumes 2.4 times more energy than a battery electric vehicle because electrolysis and hydrogen storage are much less efficient than using electricity to directly load the battery.

  As of 2009, cars used most of the oil consumed in the US and produced over 60% of carbon monoxide emissions and about 20% of greenhouse gas emissions in the United States, however hydrogen production for hydrocrest used in gasoline production is among its industrial applications accounted for about 10% of greenhouse gas emissions in the park area. In contrast, a vehicle using pure hydrogen emits several pollutants, producing mainly water and heat, although hydrogen production will create pollutants unless the hydrogen used in the fuel cell is produced using only renewable energy.

  In a 2005 wheel well analysis, the DOE estimated that fuel cell electric vehicles using hydrogen produced from natural gas would result in about 55% CO2 emissions per mile of internal combustion engines and have about 25% fewer emissions than hybrid vehicles. . In 2006, Ulf Bossel stated that the large amount of energy required to extract hydrogen from natural compounds (water, natural gas, biomass), packs the light gas by compression or liquefaction, transfers the energy carrier to the user, and also loses energy when Richard Gilbert, co-inventor "Transport Revolutions: Moving People and Freight Without Oil" (2010), also recalls that extracting hydrogen gas ends up using some of the energy it creates. The energy is then absorbed by converting the hydrogen back into electricity in the fuel cells.” “This means that only a quarter of the initially available energy reaches the electric motor”… Such conversion losses prevent, for example, recharging an electric vehicle (EV) such as a Nissan Leaf or a Chevy Volt. from a wall socket. In 2010, a 2010 analysis of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles from Argonne National Laboratories states that h3 renewable feeds offer a much greater green home effect. This result has recently been confirmed. In 2010, the US DOE Well-to-Wheels publication suggested that the efficiency of a single step of compressing hydrogen to 4,250 psi (43.1 MPa) at a gas station is 9four%. A 2016 study in the November issue of the journal Energy by scientists from Stanford University and the Technical University of Munich found that even with local hydrogen production, “investing in all-electric battery vehicles is the more economical choice for reducing carbon dioxide emissions, primarily due to their lower cost and significantly higher energy efficiency.”

  criticism
  In 2008, Professor Jeremy P. Myers in The Electrochemical Journal wrote: “Although fuel cells are efficient compared to internal combustion engines, they are not as efficient as batteries, primarily due to the inefficiency of the oxygen reduction reaction …hey is best for off-grid operation or where fuel can be provided continuously. For applications requiring frequent and relatively fast starts... where zero emissions are required, as in enclosed spaces such as warehouses and where hydrogen is considered an acceptable reactant, [the PEM fuel cell] is becoming an increasingly attractive choice [when exchanging batteries is inconvenient]." The practical cost of fuel cells for vehicles will remain high, however, until production volumes are factored into scale and a well-developed supply chain. Until then, costs are about an order of magnitude higher than DOE targets.

  Also in 2008, Wired News reported that "Experts say it will be 40 years or more before hydrogen has any meaningful impact on gasoline consumption or global warming, and we cannot afford to wait that long. At the same time, fuel cells are diverting resources away from more immediate solutions.” The Economist, in 2008, quotes Robert Zubrin, author of Energy Victory, as saying, "Hydrogen is just the worst vehicle." The magazine noted that most of the hydrogen is generated by steam reformation, which creates at least as much carbon dioxide emissions per mile as some of today's gasoline cars. On the other hand, if hydrogen could be produced using renewable energy, "it would be easier to just use this energy to charge the batteries of all electric or plug-in hybrid vehicles." Los Angeles Times wrote in 2009year: "No matter how you look at it, hydrogen is a disgusting way to drive cars." The Washington Post asked in November 2009: "If you wanted to store energy in the form of hydrogen and then use that hydrogen to produce electricity for an engine, when the electrical energy is already waiting to be sucked out of outlets across America and stored in automatic batteries...? »

  The Motley Fool stated in 2013 that "there are still price-limiting barriers [for hydrogen vehicles] regarding transportation, storage and, most importantly, production." Volkswagen Rudolf Krebs stated in 2013 that "no matter how great you make cars yourself, the laws of physics get in the way of their overall efficiency. The most efficient way to convert energy into mobility is with electricity. ” He elaborated: “Hydrogen mobility only makes sense if you use green energy,” but… you need to first convert it to “low efficiency” hydrogen, where “you lose about 40 percent of the initial energy.” You then have to compress the hydrogen and store it at high pressure in tanks that use more energy. "And then you have to convert the hydrogen back to electricity in a fuel cell, with another efficiency loss." Krebs continued: "After all, out of your initial 100 percent electrical power, you get 30-40 percent."

  In 2014, electric vehicle and energy futurist Julian Cox published an analysis using US government NREL and EPA data that debunks widely held political assumptions about the claimed emissions benefits from using hydrogen in transportation. Cox computed the emissions generated per paired EPA combined-cycle orbit, as well as per wheel, on real-time hydrogen fuel cell vehicles and figures combined with test subjects included in the US Department of Energy's long-term NREL FCV study. The report presents official data that categorically refutes the marketer's claims of any inherent advantages of hydrogen fuel cells over drive trains of equivalent conventional gasoline hybrids and even conventional small-engined cars with equivalent performance of drive trains due to the intensity of hydrogen emissions from natural gas. The report further demonstrated the economic inevitability of continued use of methane in hydrogen production due to the cut-off effect of hydrogen fuel cell renewable mileage costs due to losses in converting electricity to and from hydrogen compared to the direct use of electricity in a conventional electric vehicle. The analysis runs counter to the marketing claims of vehicle manufacturers involved in promoting hydrogen fuel cells, and whose claims are often reflected in public policy statements. The analysis found that government policy on hydrogen fuel cells has been misled by a false equivalence to very large, very old, or very powerful gasoline vehicles, which do not accurately reflect the choice of emission reduction technologies that are readily available among lower cost and pre-existing new choices. cars for consumers, and also to the taxpayer who funded the excess hydrogen infrastructure on the assumption that, on scientific grounds, is factually false. Instead, marketing, and therefore government policy claims for hydrogen, can be backed up by official US DOE figures that they are highly misleading. Cox wrote in 2014 that extracting hydrogen from methane is "significantly richer in carbon per unit of energy than coal". Mistaken fossil hydrogen from hydraulic fracturing for an environmentally sustainable energy path threatens to encourage energy policies that will dilute and potentially destroy global efforts to prevent climate change at the risk of diverting investment and focusing on vehicle technologies that are economically compatible with renewable energy." . Business Insider commented in 2013:

  Pure hydrogen can be produced industrially, but it consumes energy. If that energy isn't coming from renewable sources, then fuel cell cars aren't as clean as they seem. … Another problem is the lack of infrastructure. Gas stations need to invest in the ability to fill hydrogen tanks before FCEVs are practical, and it's unlikely many will do so while there are so few customers on the road. … Worsening the lack of infrastructure is the high cost of the technology. Fuel cells are "still very, very expensive."

  In 2014, climate blogger and former Department of Energy official Joseph Romm devoted three articles to criticism of hydrogen vehicles. He stated that FCVs still have not overcome the following challenges: the high cost of vehicles, the high cost of refueling, and the lack of fuel delivery infrastructure. “It will take several miracles to overcome all these problems simultaneously in the coming decades.” What's more, he said, "FCVs are not green" due to the release of methane during natural gas production, and when hydrogen is produced, like 95% of it using the steam reforming process. He concluded that renewables could not be used economically to produce hydrogen for the FCV fleet "now or in the future". A GreenTech Media analyst made similar findings in 2014. In 2015, Clean Technica listed some of the disadvantages of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, as did Car Throttle. Another Clean Technica writer concluded, "While hydrogen may have a role to play in the world of energy storage (especially in seasonal storage), it seems like a dead end when it comes to public vehicles."

  A 2017 analysis published in Green Car Reports found that the best hydrogen fuel cells consume “more than three times as much electricity per mile as an electric vehicle … generate more greenhouse gas emissions than other powertrain technologies … [and have] very high fuel costs… Given all the hurdles and demands for new infrastructure (estimated at $400 billion), fuel cell vehicles appear to be a niche technology at best, with little impact on US oil consumption. In 2017, Michael Barnard, writing in Forbes, pointed out the continuing disadvantages of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles and concluded that "By 2008, it was quite clear that hydrogen was and would be inferior to battery technology as energy storage for vehicles.

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