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The Best Cheap 3D Printers for 2022

While we'd hesitate to call 3D printing a mature technology, you might say it has reached its teenage years. Through their first decade-and-change, 3D printers have come down in price, grown easier to set up and operate, and become more reliable. And you may pay less than you expect: Many once-high-end features have migrated down to inexpensive models.

PC Labs has been reviewing 3D printers since 2013. Today, the state of 3D printing is strong, but that wasn’t always the case. For the first several years, it was often an adventure getting one of these printers up and running, let alone successfully through our testing regimen. Issues with filament-based—aka fused filament fabrication (FFF) or fused deposition modeling (FDM)—printers were abundant.

Filament feeders had to be coaxed into delivering filament from the spool to the extruder. Print beds had to be manually aligned. The extruder or hot end had to be positioned just right to minimize the gap between the nozzle and the build plate (the flat surface on which the object is printed). Objects frequently stuck to the build plate, and required careful, sometimes unsuccessful, efforts to pry them off. These and other issues required painstaking effort to resolve, often combined with calls to tech support.

Not so much anymore. While they can still be rebellious at times, 3D printers have grown up a lot, and achieving the 3D printer basics has gotten a lot less likely to end in a shouting match over small things. And they've gotten a lot more affordable, too, for curious DIY-ers and hobbyists to try.

If you're in the market for a beginner or low-cost 3D printer, it's important to know how lower-end models differ. Read on for mini-reviews of the top budget 3D printers we've tested. After that, we go into more detail on understanding the 3D printer specs and tech relevant to beginning buyers. Ready to take the plunge? Read on.

How to Buy a Cheap 3D Printer

The biggest changes to 3D printers over the last few years have come to the cheaper models. Nowadays, many of those classic, ornery 3D-printing issues have been resolved (most of the time, anyway), even for consumer and bargain-priced 3D printers. Automatic print-bed leveling is the norm, and you can usually remove 3D-printed objects from heated and/or flexible build plates with a minimum of coaxing. And most 3D printer manufacturers have either developed and refined their own software, or have adapted an open-source printing platform such as Cura.

What separates more expensive 3D printers from cheap ones ("cheap" defined as $500 or less, for the purposes of this article) is often a select group of features. These include the build volume, the type of frame, the varieties of supported filament, the software, and the connectivity mix. Let's run through those in turn.

What's the Right Build Volume for a 3D Printer?

A 3D printer’s build volume is the maximum dimensions (HWD) of a part that it can print. (We say “a part” because a 3D-printed object can consist of multiple parts that are printed, then glued or otherwise pieced together. ) While the smallest build volume of any 3D printer we have tested is 3.9 by 3.9 by 4.9 inches, we consider any build volume smaller than 6 by 6 by 6 inches to be small, any between that and 10 by 10 by 10 inches as medium, and any printer with at least one build dimension of more than 10 inches as having a large build volume.

As a general rule, inexpensive 3D printers have small build volumes, while more expensive ones have larger build volumes. This depends in part on the type of printer. Closed-frame 3D printers—and most semi-open models, which have a rigid top, base, and sides but are open in front and, often, back—tend to have small build volumes, while open-frame printers, lacking as rigid a physical structure, often have relatively large build volumes for the price. You'll want to weigh the build volume against the kinds of objects you will print.

Should I Get an Open-Frame or Closed-Frame 3D Printer?

Which brings us to the frame "form factor" question: open-frame versus closed-frame. Closed-frame 3D printers are boxlike devices, with a rigid base, walls (with a see-through door in front), and top. Among their advantages? They muffle the operating noise, as well as reduce the odor from melted filament (which is potentially an issue with ABS plastic), and they provide some protection for people or pets who might inadvertently touch the hot extruder. A downside: They tend to have smaller build volumes than open-frame 3D printers, which have fewer (often, no) walls to constrict them.

Low-cost 3D printers include both open-frame and closed-frame models, as well as a few stereolithography printers. If a relatively large build volume is a priority, you’re likely to get more bang for the buck with an open-frame model. Open-frames do have some clear downsides by definition: They tend to be noisy, emit odors when certain plastics are melted, and provide little protection for someone who might touch the hot extruder.

Also, recognize some potential negatives of open frames, depending on the model. Some require assembly, being essentially kits, and most require more setup care than a closed-frame printer, plus more maintenance to keep them running smoothly. Still, these very traits should not deter—and may even appeal to—hobbyists and DIY folks.

What Should I Look for in 3D Printer Software and Connectivity?

Gone are the days when tinkerers had to cobble together several different programs to get a 3D printer to run. Manufacturers either include their own 3D printing program or modify an existing platform such as the open-source Cura.

3D printing software performs three main functions: processing an object file (resizing, moving, rotating, and in some cases duplicating it), slicing it (into virtual layers, based on your chosen resolution), and printing it. These are almost universally combined into a seamless process. Some high-end printers have software that supports a wider range of settings you can tweak, but even the basic suites work at least reasonably well.

More likely to vary among the cheaper set is the array of connection options from model to model. Nearly all have a USB Type-A port to fit a thumb drive for printing from document files. Most also have a USB Type-B port for connecting directly to a computer, and some offer Wi-Fi, too (or as an alternative), while a handful let you connect via Ethernet to share the printer across a local network.

Some printers support storing 3D files on an SD or microSD card (which may also contain the printer’s system files). Most 3D printer manufacturers (even the discount ones) have a mobile app to launch and monitor print jobs, and a few provide access to cloud services from which you can print.

While high-end 3D printers tend to have an abundance of connection choices, discount models vary widely in their choices. Some are generous and some are basic, so it pays to assess what a given model offers.

What Should I Look for in Filament Support?

Filament support tends to be a key area that separates the cheaper models from the higher-end ones. (See our guide to understanding 3D printing filaments for more particulars.) Inexpensive 3D printers tend to support a limited number of plastic filament types, some of them only PLA and/or ABS.

PLA (polylactic acid) is a biodegradable, plant-based polymer, while ABS (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene) is the same tough plastic that Legos are made from. Objects printed from ABS are durable and nontoxic, though the material can be tricky to work with. ABS can emit an acrid, unpleasant odor during printing, and the bottom corners of objects being printed with it have a tendency to curl upward a bit, especially if you are using a non-heated print bed. This can lead to unsightly prints, and/or prints prematurely pulling off the build plate, ruining them.

Many entry-level and low-price 3D printers stick exclusively to PLA. If you want to experiment with a larger variety of filaments—which include water-soluble filament, wood- and metal-laced composites, and both tough and flexible varieties—you may have to pay more, although a few discount models support a wide range of materials.

Should I Consider a 3D Printing Pen Instead?

Although they aren’t printers per se, inexpensive 3D pens are close kin to 3D printers—using the same filament types and a similar extrusion system—and we include them in the 3D printing category. Rather than tracing out a programmed pattern, you use the 3D pen much like a normal pen, except that you draw with molten plastic. You can trace a pattern or draw freehand, and even draw in three dimensions as the plastic quickly solidifies and hardens once extruded.

Most 3D pens cost less than $100, and some cost $50 or less. At a glance, 3D pens may appear to be toys, but some artists and craftspeople have taken to them, as it is possible to make quite complicated and beautiful objects with them. If your aim in 3D printing is something closer to freehand design and free expression than computer-centric, structured, and repeatable output, you might give one a try.

So, What Is the Best Cheap 3D Printer to Buy?

Buying a budget 3D printer needn’t mean a world of sacrifice. Plenty of capable and reliable models sell at less than $500, and while they may not be as feature-rich as their more expensive cousins, there's no sense in paying for things you don’t need.

Many casual 3D-printing experimenters will be fine with printing over a USB cable or from a thumb drive, and sticking to PLA may be the best choice for a starter 3D printer. If you focus just on the features you want, you may be pleasantly surprised at what you find. Below, check out a spec breakdown of the best under-$500 3D printers we have reviewed, paralleling our picks above. Also, for a look at the broader market, see our guide to our favorite 3D printers overall.

Best 3D printer 2022: The best cheap, mid-range and high-end 3D printers

3D printing isn’t the stuff of science fiction – nowadays, anyone can produce physical items on demand. You can use models freely downloaded from the internet, or design your own custom toys, ornaments and practical household accessories.

There are a lot of printers on the market though, at a very wide range of prices – and there are a few technical points you should understand when choosing one. Here’s our guide to picking the perfect model.

Best 3-D Printers: At a glance

The best all-round 3D printer | £559 | Qidi Tech X-Pro
The best budget 3D printer | £185 | Monoprice Select Mini V2
The best build-it-yourself 3D printer | £699 | Original Prusa i3 MK3S
The best high-end 3D printer | £1,722 | MakerBot Replicator+

How to choose the best 3D printer for you

3D printing isn’t quite as straightforward as regular paper printing. It’s a slow process – expect to wait an hour for even fairly small objects to emerge – and you may need to trim off excess plastic and generally finish up your model by hand once the printing process is complete.

Things aren’t guaranteed to go smoothly every time, either. With a poor-quality printer you may hit problems such as the plastic not sticking where it ought to, or the whole model collapsing half-way through printing. It’s important therefore to look for a printer that can be relied on: the ones we’ve recommended below are all excellent performers, and if there’s something specific you want to know you can always check customer reviews before you make your purchase.

How big is a 3D printer and what type is best for the home?

3D printers come in all sizes and shapes, and some are too large to sit neatly on a desk – so if you want a printer for home use, be sure to check the dimensions. Smaller printers may be limited to producing models of around 10cm in each dimension, but that’s not necessarily a problem as very few of the things you’re likely to want to print will be bigger than that.

Another question is whether you want a neatly self-contained printer or one where the workings are exposed for all to see. The latter style is easier to maintain, and if you’re into engineering and gadgetry you may prefer the look. However, 3D printing involves moving mechanical parts, and the extrusion unit can heat up to above 250°C – so an enclosed model is more appropriate for a domestic setting. An enclosed design will also minimise the noise from whirring motors and cooling fans.

How does a 3D printer work?

Most 3D printers produce their output using a process called fused deposition modelling (FDM), which basically means building up your model by squirting out molten plastic in a succession of layers.

There are two main plastics used for this, namely polylactide (PLA) and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS). PLA tends to produce cleaner results, while ABS models are physically stronger; the difference isn’t huge, though, and most printers can use both. Many can also use filaments that are mixed with other materials, such as wood or copper. This lets you produce items with more aesthetically pleasing textures, and which may even be electrically conductive, if that’s useful to you.

If you want to make a model out of more than one material (or in more than one colour) you can often pause the printer part-way through a print job, switch filaments, then resume printing. In this way you could, for example, print an object with a red bottom and a blue top. If you want to combine colours more intricately than this, you’ll need a printer with a dual extruder head, which can switch between two different filament feeds as it prints each layer.

The main alternative to the FDM process is stereolithography (SLA): instead of plastic, this uses liquid resin which is hardened by exposure to a laser. SLA isn’t ideal for domestic use, as it produces unpleasant odours and the models need to be bathed in alcohol once the print process is complete – but the end results can look cleaner, with more fine detail than you’d get from a comparably priced FDM machine.

Where can I get 3D models to print?

There are literally millions of 3D models available for free download from sites such as thingiverse.com or cults3d.com. Every 3D printer comes with software that can import such files and drive the printer to turn them into physical plastic items. You can normally assume that this software will be offered for both Windows and macOS, and some printers support Android and iOS as well.

It’s worth checking what file formats the supplied software can read, however. The most common types are STL and OBJ files, but there’s plenty of others out there. If your 3D printing software supports a wide spread of formats, that means you can find and print cool 3D object files from a broader range of sources.

Note too that the supplied software doesn’t normally offer a complete set of tools for designing your own 3D objects. It might allow you to make basic alterations to downloaded models, but if you want to go further you’ll want to look into a dedicated 3D modelling or CAD application – just make sure it can output files in a format that’s compatible with your printer software.

What type of connections does a 3D printer use?

Some 3D printers can connect directly to a PC or Mac over USB, while others are designed to be driven over a network (either wireless or wired). It’s worth checking this before you buy: a network model is ideal if you want to share your printer across multiple computers, but might not be the most convenient for personal use.

Even if your chosen 3D printer doesn’t support direct USB connection, it may well still have a USB socket. This is to allow you to plug a flash drive or external hard disk containing model files; you can then use the printer’s built-in browser to select a file and start the printing process with no need for a computer connection at all. Some printers have a microSD card slot for the same purpose.

Does the nozzle size and print resolution make a difference?

Most 3D printers squirt their molten plastic out of a standard-sized 0.4mm nozzle. This is fine enough for all but the most intricate models: we’d hesitate to use it for small gaming figurines, but it’s absolutely acceptable for ornaments, tools and knick-knacks.

The nozzle diameter doesn’t tell you the whole story, however. You should also check the print resolution, which tells you how precisely the plastic can be positioned. In many cases, although the plastic itself has a diameter of 0.4mm, the printer can lay it down with an accuracy of 0. 1mm. It’s worth checking this before you buy, as print resolution can vary substantially between different printers, and it can spell the difference between bumpy, rough-looking prints and smooth, professional-looking results.

1. MakerBot Replicator+: The best high-end 3D printer

Price: £1,722 | Buy now from Laserlines

Designed for workshops and schools, the Replicator+ is one of the fastest 3D printers around. It offers great accuracy and quality, and it can produce large objects with footprints of up to 295 x 195mm.

Like the Dremel Digilab, the Replicator+ includes a built-in camera so you can monitor your print progress from afar. Support for 20 different file formats means you can work with pre-designed models from any number of sources, and in addition to built-in Ethernet and Wi-Fi connections there’s also cloud support, so you can manage print jobs over the internet – perhaps using the MakerBot Mobile app for Android and iOS.

The catch is that you’re obliged to use MakerBot’s own PLA filament – if you try to save money by using cheap unbranded material you could void your warranty. There’s also no support for ABS at all, and while MakerBot’s own Tough PLA makes a great alternative it’s pricier, costing around £80 for a 750g reel.

Still, while the Replicator+ isn’t a budget choice, its speed and versatility are impressive: if you’re looking for a 3D printing workhorse, it’s well worth considering.

Key specs – Printing type: Single-extruder FDM; Print materials: 1.75mm PLA, MakerBot Tough PLA, bronze fill, copper fill, wood fill; Nozzle diameter: 0.4mm; Print resolution: 0.1mm; Quoted printing speed: Not stated; Print volume (WDH): 295 x 195 x 165mm; Printer dimensions (WDH): 528 x 441 x 410mm; Interface: 3in colour LCD with control dial; Connectivity: USB, Ethernet, Wi-Fi

Buy now from Laserlines

2.

Dremel Digilab 3D45: The best enthusiast 3D printer

Price: £1,699 | Buy now from Amazon

The Digilab 3D45 isn’t cheap, but it comes from a respected brand and has numerous features to satisfy 3D printing devotees. For one, it can print models of up to 254 x 152 x 170mm in size, and its fully enclosed design emphasises safety and keeps the noise to a minimum.

This unit itself is fairly large, with a footprint of 645 x 406mm, but built-in Wi-Fi allows you to locate it wherever’s convenient, without having to worry about trailing cables from your computer. It even has a built-in camera, so you can keep an eye on your printing progress while it’s whirring away in another room.

With its 4.5in colour touchscreen the 3D45 is a breeze to use, and you can share it across multiple computers too – the supplied software supports both Windows and macOS – making it ideal for workshops and educational settings.

Key specs – Printing type: Single-extruder FDM; Print materials: 1. 75mm ABS, PLA, PETG, nylon; Nozzle diameter: 0.4mm; Print resolution: 0.05mm; Quoted printing speed: Not stated; Print volume (WDH): 254 x 152 x 170mm; Printer dimensions (WDH): 645 x 406 x 404mm; Interface: 4.5in colour touchscreen; Connectivity: Micro USB, Ethernet, Wi-Fi

Dremel Digilab 3D45 Award Winning 3D Printer with Heated Build Plate, High Build Volume (254 x 152 x 170 mm) to print 1.75 mm PLA, Nylon, Eco ABS and PETG Filament at 50 Micron Resolution

£803.95 Buy now

3. Monoprice Select Mini V2: The best budget 3D printer

Price: £185 | Buy now from Amazon

For the price you might be expecting an assemble-it-yourself-kit, but this 3D printer comes ready to roll right out of the box, so you can start turning out models in minutes. Though it only has a single extruder head, it’ll work with regular ABS and PLA, plus wood, copper, steel and bronze-filled filaments, so you can create items with a good range of different appearances and physical characteristics. It’s easy to use too, thanks to a large 3.7in colour LCD screen and intuitive control wheel.

The print base is only 120mm square, and the maximum print height is 12cm, so it won’t do for big, ambitious projects, but on the plus side, the printer itself only has a footprint of 287 x 190mm, so it’ll won’t dominate your desk. You don’t necessarily even need to connect it to a computer, as the Select Mini V2 can print directly from an SD card – or you can use its built-in 2.4GHz Wi-Fi receiver to operate it remotely.

Key specs – Printing type: Single-extruder FDM; Print materials: 1.75mm ABS, PLA, wood fill, copper fill, steel fill, bronze fill; Nozzle diameter: 0.4mm; Print resolution: 0.1mm; Quoted printing speed: 55mm/sec; Print volume (WDH): 120 x 120 x 120mm; Printer dimensions (WDH): 287 x 190 x 343mm; Interface: 3.7in colour LCD display, control wheel; Connectivity: Micro USB, microSD, Wi-Fi

Monoprice Select Mini V2 3D Printer - Heated Construction Board - Ready-Mounted - Free Pattern PLA Filament - Pre-Installed MicroSD card - Black

£184. 99 Buy now

4. Qidi Tech X-Pro: The best all-round 3D printer

Price: £559 | Buy now from Gearbest

The Qidi Tech X-Pro looks almost like a regular printer, save for its futuristic colour scheme. It’s neatly self-contained, compact enough to sit on your desk at home and easy to operate thanks to its 4.3in touchscreen.

In use the X-Pro consistently produces smooth, clean models – and its twin extruder design means you can feed it two reels of different filament and produce multicoloured items that look far more attractive than the usual single-colour lumps of plastic. Despite this, it’s a very easy printer to set up, with a quick-start guide included and no mechanical assembly required – just a simple levelling procedure for the printing plate.

While the X-Pro doesn’t support direct USB connections, it’ll connect to any network over Ethernet or Wi-Fi. For £549 it’s a superb choice for beginners and regular hobbyists alike, delivering high-quality, visually appealing results with a minimum of fuss.

Key specs – Printing type: Dual-extruder FDM; Print materials: 1.75mm ABS, PLA, PETG; Nozzle diameter: 0.4mm; Print resolution: 0.1mm; Quoted printing speed: Not stated; Print volume (WDH): 230 x 150 x 150mm; Printer dimensions (WDH): 550 x 360 x 550mm; Interface: 4.3in colour touchscreen; Connectivity: Micro USB, Ethernet, Wi-Fi

Buy now from Gearbest

5. Anycubic Photon: The best resin printer

Price : £320 | Buy now from Amazon

This mid-price personal 3D printer comes ready to work out of the box, and has a super-fine lateral print resolution of 0.047mm and just 0.01mm in the vertical plane – so you can produce prints with astonishing levels of detail.

The catch is that this is achieved via the use of liquid resin rather than plastic filament, which makes the printing process a bit less user-friendly. The printer generates toxic fumes while working, so you might not want it sitting on your desk, and once you’ve finished a print you’ll need to bathe your creation in isopropyl alcohol and clean out the printer itself. Maximum print size is limited too: the base plate measures 115 x 155mm, but the maximum print height is a relatively dinky 65mm.

Another thing to note is that the Photon doesn’t connect directly to a computer: rather, you have to save your models to a USB flash drive (one’s included in the box), then plug that into the Photon and select the file you want to print. Still, this is easy to do, thanks to a 2.8in colour touchscreen – and the end results are stunning, especially for the price.

Key specs – Printing type: Stereolithographic; Print materials: UV resin; Nozzle diameter: N/A; Print resolution: 0.047mm lateral, 0.001mm vertical; Quoted printing speed: 20mm/hr; Print volume (WDH): 115 x 155 x 65mm; Printer dimensions (WDH): 220 x 220 x 400mm; Interface: 2. 8in colour touchscreen; Connectivity: USB

AnyCubic AnyCubic Photon UV Photon 3D UV Photicuring Ultra Precision 2K HD Masking LCD Printer with Smart Touch Color Screen, 2560 x 1440 Resolution

Buy now

6. Original Prusa i3 MK3S: The best build-it-yourself 3D printer

Price: £699 | Buy now from Prusa

3D printing attracts creative, technical types – so there’s a definite draw to the idea of assembling your own 3D printer. Despite the branding, the i3 MK3S wasn’t the original DIY 3D printer kit, but that’s no bad thing as it benefits from the latest extruder design and all sorts of modern features such as an anti-rust coating, layer-shift detection, robustness against power interruptions and near-silent printing.

You don’t need to be an expert engineer to put it together, either: no soldering is required, all cables come pre-cut to length, and there’s an active online forum where you can ask questions and draw on other users’ experiences. And whenever the MK3S’ next-generation successor is released, Prusa will even help you buy and fit the necessary parts to upgrade your existing unit.

As you’d hope, once you’ve put it together, the Original Prusa works admirably as a 3D printer, with automatic self-calibration, a handy LCD display and a decent print volume of 25 x 21 x 21cm. If you just want to skip to the good stuff you can also by the i3 MK3S preassembled for £899.

Key specs – Printing type: Single-extruder FDM; Print materials: 1.75mm ABS, PLA, PETG, flex, composite filament, Ngen, HIPS, polypropylene, nylon, ASA, PC-ABS; Nozzle diameter: 0.4mm; Print resolution: 0.05mm; Quoted printing speed: 200mm/sec; Print volume (WDH): 250 x 210 x 210mm; Printer dimensions (WDH): 500 x 550 x 400mm; Interface: 4-line LCD with control knob; Connectivity: microSD, USB

Buy now from Prusa

CEL Robox RBX01 3D printer (UK plug)

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The History of Modern 3D Printers — — IS Consulting

Even before the advent of writing, people learned to share information through drawings on cave walls. But this method had a significant drawback: these records could not be taken with you. Over time, mankind came up with printing technology, and in subsequent centuries it changed significantly and reached a three-dimensional, three-dimensional version.

The first mention of printing dates back to the second century. At that time, a kind of paper and paint had already appeared in China, people had learned to engrave texts on various surfaces. At first, they printed on marble columns, stones, but gradually switched to more convenient wooden blocks.

After the invention of paper, printing began to develop more strongly. In the fifteenth century, Johannes Gutenberg came up with the idea of casting stencils with letters from lead and using them for subsequent printing on paper. Approximately two centuries later, mankind moved from stencils to printing presses. The first production typewriter was designed by Terry Pelegrino in 1808. And in 1868 a patent was issued for a typewriter, which already looked more like devices used at the end of the last century.

The first black and white printers appeared in 1985, and in 1988 the production of color models began. Today, large and small printers can be found in the office, at school, and even in almost every home, because these devices are needed for study or work.

In the mid-1990s, a situation developed in the world economy in which the volume of sales of manufacturing plants decreased several times, which meant a transition to small-scale production. Ultimately, companies found that developing molds, patterns, and prototypes for more and more new models was very expensive. Approximately then, devices that can quickly and cost-effectively produce models become popular - machine tools with numerical control. Many of them remained in the manufacturing sector, but the intensive development of a separate branch of “evolution” led to the emergence of office 3D printers - this is how the history of 3D printing began.

3D printing dates back to 1948, when the American Charles Hull developed a technology that allows growing three-dimensional objects from photopolymers in a liquid state under the action of a laser. And only in 1986 he received a patent for his invention. In the same year, he founded 3D System and began developing the first industrial 3D printing machine, which was released to the public a year later in 1987. Of course, this was not yet the first 3D printer in the modern sense, but it was she who determined that objects were built up in layers.

An interesting fact is that Hull was a chemist and his invention came to him in a dream. And now, thanks to his offspring, you can make a revolution in medicine. With its help, teeth, bones and even entire organs are already being printed.

With his first printer and the founding of 3D Systems, now in the hundreds of millions of dollars, Hull launched an entire industry. And although 3D printing is a familiar name for it, another term is gaining popularity - "additive technologies". This definition is more capacious and better reveals the essence of the invention. After all, this revolution lies in the fact that, unlike traditional production methods, when a finished product is obtained from a finished piece of material by processing, cutting off the unnecessary, the opposite happens with an additive approach: the product is created by gradually adding fresh material. The process itself is as follows: a laser beam initiates a photopolymerization reaction, the plastic hardens, and after a certain number of steps you get a finished object. Similar reactions have been known for a long time, but it took time to combine them with the use of printing.

Around the same time, the development was carried out by the Japanese Hideo Kadama and several French scientists who even managed to get a patent. But Charles Hull went further and created the company 3D Systems for the commercial use of patented developments. Therefore, he gained great fame.

Initially, 3D Systems created several installations that were called "stereolithography apparatus". After receiving feedback from its customers, the company improved the device and released the SLA 250 model. Stereolithography continues to improve: the layer thickness of this technology is 0.05-0.15 mm, and object sizes are about 50-60 cm, although there are exceptions, reaching up to 2 meters.

The first consumer printers from 3D Systems appeared in early 2012. They were several dozen times smaller and lighter than their "ancestors".

Charles Hull was not the only inventor who experimented with 3D printing technologies. Along with stereolithography, other 3D printing technologies also developed.

The technology of forming three-dimensional models from layered sheet material (LOM) appeared in 1985, a year before Charles Hull received a patent for stereolithography. Its author is Mikhailo Feigen, who proposed layer-by-layer formation of three-dimensional models from sheet material: films, polyester, composite, plastic, paper, etc., fastening the layers together using a heated roller.

Making a model by hand would require several days or even weeks of work, and with the help of a LOM printer, such a model can be recreated in a few hours.

Models made using the M. Feigen technology turn out to be rough, it is difficult to remove excess material from their surface due to the risk of delamination.

In 1986, Carl Descartes invented the method of selective laser sintering. The essence of the method lies in the layer-by-layer sintering of the powder material by a laser beam.

In the working chamber, the powder is heated to a temperature bordering on the melting point. After that, the material is leveled and the laser beam draws the necessary contour on its surface. When the beam touches the powder, it is heated to the melting point and sintered. After that, a new layer of powder is poured into the chamber, and the sintering process is repeated. The cycles of adding material, its leveling and sintering are repeated according to a predetermined scheme until a finished model with a rough porous structure is formed on the working table of the chamber. The finished product is removed from the printer and excess powder is removed.

The device is capable of working with powder polymers, foundry wax, nylon, ceramics, metal powders, while switching from one material to another, the chamber should be thoroughly cleaned of the remnants of the previous material. Several models can be grown in one chamber at once.

Layered compaction technology was developed by the Israeli company Cubital in 1987. At its core, it resembles photocopying. On a selectively charged plate made of glass, a pattern of the base of the model is formed. This template is placed over a thin layer of photopolymer evenly distributed over the work surface, after which it is exposed to ultraviolet light. The photopolymer layer corresponding to this template layer becomes solid, liquid residues are removed, and the voids are filled with liquid wax, which quickly hardens. The described sequence of actions is repeated many times until the finished model is formed. The operation of the machine can be paused to remove defective layers, and later resumed.

The device, based on SGC printing technology, uses expensive, toxic and quite rare polymers. It works quite noisily and requires constant monitoring by the operator. The estimated cost of the 3D printer is $470,000.

In 1988, Scott Crump patented his invention, the idea of which is layer-by-layer casting with an extrudable melt. The essence of the technology lies in the fact that in the print head the material (melt from plastic, metal, casting wax) is preheated to the melting temperature and enters the working chamber. The head releases the molten material in the form of a thread, which is laid on the work table. After that, the platform is lowered down by the thickness of one layer so that the next layer can be formed.

After receiving a patent for the invention, Scott Crump founded the Stratasys company for the production of 3D printing devices. The first 3D Dimension printer with an extruding print head appeared in 1991, its estimated cost was from 50 to 220 thousand US dollars.

Selective laser sintering (SLS) was invented by Deckard and Beeman at the University of Texas at Austin. The two scientists also formed a company to promote their technology, but in 2001 it was bought out by 3D Systems.

The modern historical stage in the development of 3D printing started in 1993 with the creation of Solidscape. It produced inkjet printers that preceded 3D printers. In 1993, 2 students at MIT came up with "3D printing technology" or 3DP. This development resembled the printing process of an inkjet printer. He created images not on paper, but in a special container, and they were voluminous. Then, in 1996, the concept of "3D printing" and the first 3D printer appeared. The sale and creation of devices according to this principle was carried out by Z corporation, which lasted until 2012, since it was bought out by 3D Systems.

The first 3D printers had low power, worked slowly, and as the speed increased, the products were obtained with large errors. Only in 2005 did 3D printers with high print quality appear.

The next milestones in this field were in 2005 (color printing appeared) and 2006, when Adrian Bower founded the RepRap project.

It is on the Bower principle that most modern 3D printers with FDM technology work. The goal of the RepRap project was to create 3D printers that could replicate their parts. Two years after the start of the project, the English designers of the University of Bath released a printer that is capable of printing about half of its parts.

Until 2008, any 3D printer could only work with the use of one type of consumable - ABS plastic. This is one of the best consumables for 3D printing. But Objet Geometries Ltd. developed the Connex500 printer, which could work with different types of materials at the same time.

The history of the creation of a 3D printer continued with the emergence of a technology called PolyJet, based on the use of photopolymer liquid plastic. With this method of printing, the head "draws" a layer of photopolymer, which is instantly illuminated by a lamp. The method turned out to be advantageous in many respects: its price is much lower, and high accuracy makes it possible to manufacture not just models, but ready-to-use parts.

In 2010, a group of scientists from the Fluid Interfaces Group from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology presented to the public the first 3D printer "Cornucopia" for recreating food. Instead of plain paper, food is loaded into the food printer, which the machine cools, mixes and uses to create the finished product.

The main inventors of the printing device "Cornucopia" are scientists Amit Zoran and Marcello Coelho. Their innovative device is able to take cooking to a new stage of development. The concept will be able to "print" previously unknown dishes with a predetermined nutritional value, quality and taste.

The following year, a biological printer appeared, printing with human and animal stem cells.

At the end of the first decade of the 21st century, a group of scientists from the Institute of Regenerative Medicine at Wick Forest University came to the conclusion that human tissues can be printed using inkjet printers, filling them with living cells. From that moment, painstaking work began on the creation of a bioprinter for growing human organs. Such a device was demonstrated in September 2011 at a conference on new technologies and design. It functions just like a normal inkjet printer, but instead of ink, it uses human and animal stem cells.

A 3D printer is capable of printing pieces of tissue, skin, spinal discs, knee cartilage, and complete organs. Before printing, the patient's organ is scanned from different angles and the information obtained is loaded into a three-dimensional printer, along with a tissue sample of the organ. For several hours of operation, the device recreates an exact copy of the organ, including blood vessels.

The scientists also recreated the heart of a rat, which worked successfully after being implanted in an experimental animal.

This unique device can heal wounds directly on the patient, as well as eliminate mechanical damage to organs resulting from gunshot and stab wounds, accidents, etc. To do this, he scans the wound (organ) and fills it with the appropriate type of freshly grown tissue.

In 2011, scientists from the UK were the first to show a 3D printer that could print any chocolate figurine or a simple chocolate bar. The printer stacks layers on top of each other. Due to the ability of chocolate to quickly solidify and harden when cooled, the printing process is quite fast.

2011 is the year of the creation of the first 3D printed aircraft. This idea belonged to engineers from the University of Southampton (UK). They said that it was not difficult in the printing process, but in the design stage. The 3D aircraft model flew perfectly at a relatively high speed.

Previously, 3D printers were bulky and very expensive, but in 2011, researchers from the Vienna University of Technology introduced the smallest, lightest, and cheapest 3D printer in terms of printing costs. The new model uses additive photopolymerization technology for photosensitive resin, weighs 1.5 kilograms and costs about 1,200 euros.

In 2012, printers for home use appeared, such a 3D printer prints using FDM technology. In 2014, a printer for simultaneous printing of several colors and materials appeared. In the same year, many corporations showed interest in 3D printing.

3D printers can safely be called the most necessary and useful devices of our present and future. Technologies for creating 3D models are widely used in various fields. For example, small 3D printers can create all sorts of little things needed in everyday life: toys, dishes, furniture and decorations.

Scientists from the University of Oxford proposed a printer capable of producing synthetic materials, as well as materials with some properties of living tissues. Italian roboticist Enrico Dini has created a D-Shape printer that can print the layout of a two-story building, including rooms, stairs, pipes and partitions. It uses only sand and an inorganic compound. Scientists compare the strength of the resulting material with reinforced concrete.

Now the number of materials that are used for 3D printing has exceeded one hundred. Materials that can be used today include acrylic, concrete, hydrogel, paper, gypsum, wood fiber, ice, metal powder, nylon, polycaprolactone, polylactide, polypropylene, low-density polyethylene, and chocolate.

Now they print cakes, and entire houses, and even models of supernovae, created as a result of mathematical modeling. Today, the global market for such products is more than $3 billion, and according to forecasts for 2020, this figure will reach $12 billion.

It is too early to talk about the maturity of the market, but the fact that the largest aircraft engine manufacturer Rolls-Royce is already printing turbine blades, trusting people's lives with new technology, speaks for itself. Such giants do not take up 3D printing out of mere curiosity. It's a matter of costs. If you need to create a prototype, show it to someone, make something that, according to the results of tests, will have to be finalized, there is no better way than to print a model on a 3D printer. Much less time and money is wasted. Moreover, both directly and indirectly: the material costs in the traditional approach, expressed in the amount of waste, in some industries reach enormous values. In the aircraft industry, for example, there is even such an indicator as the percentage of raw materials that eventually find their embodiment in an aircraft.

The advantages that have spawned hundreds of start-ups creating real things in various industries are the speed of prototyping, low overhead, the availability of a variety of 3D printers, coupled with a decrease in cost and an expansion of the range of microelectronic base.

But it's not just about simplicity and cheapness. Returning to aircraft engines, today these are the most complex products from an engineering point of view, which experience colossal and repeated loads. Previously, the process of creating some parts had to be divided into several stages, since the traditional method of production simply did not allow creating objects of such complex shapes in one go. Now, with the use of 3D printing, this has become possible. And, importantly, the creation of such products is an excellent illustration of the modern approach to production, when most of the operations, from the creation of a drawing to the operation of the product, are controlled by a computer. After all, before starting printing, the object is designed and processed on a computer, converted into a special format understandable for the printer, and after that it is sent, again in digital form, for printing.

The reverse process, also associated with computer processing, is also possible: when a real object is digitized using a 3D scanner, converted into a drawing format and reproduced on a three-dimensional printer in an unchanged or corrected form. Another property of additive technologies is connected with this: the ability to quickly adjust the finished product or create a new one from scratch, depending on the specific needs of the client. The same printing of internal organs or parts of the skeleton without taking into account the characteristics of a particular patient is impossible.

Additive technologies also have their drawbacks. The main criticism focuses around the low speed of creating products and their quality. For 20 years, the speed of 3D printing has increased significantly. And it will continue to grow: manufacturers are increasingly using multiple printheads, which not only speeds up the process, but also allows you to use different colors and even materials in one pass.

The quality is also not as bad as many claim. Models obtained using inexpensive printers intended for home use come out rough, the details are lame, but, on the one hand, the resolution of devices is growing, and on the other, submicron resolution is not always needed even in industrial production.