Figure 4 standalone 3d printer

Figure 4 Standalone - 3D Printer

Affordability

Part of 3D Systems’ scalable, fully integrated Figure 4^® technology platform, Figure 4 Standalone is an affordable and versatile solution for low volume production, and same-day prototyping for fast design iteration and verification, offering speed, quality, and accuracy with industrial-grade durability, service, and support. With a compact and easy-to-use design, Figure 4 Standalone delivers industrial-grade durability at an affordable price and low total cost of operations.

Versatility

Quick and easy material changeover allows for functional prototyping and production application diversity with the same printer. Featuring a manual material feed, it is augmented with separate post-processing units available for cleaning, drying, and curing.

Explore Materials

Customer Stories

Fast Turnaround

Achieve same-day functional prototyping and low volume production with ultra-high speeds. Figure 4 Standalone offers quality, accuracy, and Six Sigma repeatability (Cpk > 2) with industrial-grade durability, service, and support. Figure 4 Standalone was designed for ease-of-use and includes file preparation and print management with 3D Systems 3D Sprint software.

Broad Range of Materials

3D Systems’ Material Design Center has over 30 years of proven R&D experience and process development expertise. The broad and expanding range of materials available for Figure 4 Standalone addresses a wide variety of applications needs, for functional prototyping, direct production of end-use parts, molding and casting, and includes rigid and durable with thermoplastic-like behaviors, rubber-like, castable, heat resistant, and biocompatible capable materials.

Note: Not all materials are available in all countries. Please consult your local sales representative for availability.

About this printer

Applications
Benefits
Tech Specs

Applications

Replacement of traditional molding and cast urethane processes
Rapid functional prototyping and fast concept models
Investment casting patterns for jewelry
End-use durable plastic parts
Short run production of plastic articles
Jigs and fixtures
Rapid tooling -molds and master patterns
Elastomeric parts –prototypes of grommets, seals, hoses, weatherstripping, tubes, gaskets, spacers and other vibration dampening components
Medical applications requiring biocompatibility and/or thermal resistance

Benefits

Affordable initial investment
High throughput vs. competitive 3D printing technologies
Industrial-grade durability
Print and use same day
Low total cost of operations
Application flexibility
Efficient design iteration
Six Sigma quality and repeatability

Tech Specs

Non-contact membrane Figure 4 technology
Printable Build Volume (W x D x H):124.8 x 70.2 x 196 mm (4.9 x 2.8 x 7.7 in)
Industry-leading 3D Sprint software for file preparation and production
Cloud connectivity for predictive and prompt service with 3D Connect capability.
Production-grade materials
Compact printer footprint
Manual material feed
Separate, manual post-curing unit, required

The broad and expanding range of materials available for Figure 4 addresses a wide variety of applications needs, for functional prototyping, direct production of end-use parts, molding and casting. Chose from rigid and durable materials with thermoplastic-like behaviors, rubber-like, castable, heat resistant, and biocompatible capable materials.

3D printing with plastics offers many choices for engineering grade materials, elastomers and composites. Do you need flexibility? Strength? Bio-compatibility? More?
3D print with plastics to build almost anything - used for prototyping, manufacturing, anatomical models and more. Select a plastic material and 3D technology to deliver the characteristics you need.

Interested in purchasing this printer?

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Figure 4 Production

Industry’s first customizable, fully-integrated factory solution for direct digital production

Figure 4 Modular

Scalable, semi-automated 3D manufacturing solution designed to scale with growth

Figure 4 - 3D Printer

Figure 4® Factory Solutions

Productive and cost-effective digital manufacturing solutions for production environments

There is a Figure 4 solution to match any production requirements:

Figure 4 enables high-speed direct digital production, a process that complements traditional production methods, providing manufacturers the accuracy, reliability, repeatability, and uptime of traditional molding, producing parts without the costs and time-consuming aspects of tooling.

Manufacturing Redefined

3D Systems Figure 4 makes 3D production a reality—with increased productivity, durability, repeatability and lower total cost of operations (TCO). Figure 4 delivers productivity enabled through speed and automation with real world repeatable, accurate parts with demonstrated Six Sigma performance in a diverse range of robust, production-grade materials.

High Speed Direct Digital Production

Figure 4 delivers ultra-fast additive manufacturing technology with systems that offer expandable capacity to meet your present and future needs. With access to a range of innovative materials, Figure 4 enables tool-less alternatives to traditional injection molding or urethane casting processes with direct digital production of precision plastic parts. Get the quality and performance of injection-molded parts with smooth surface finish and exceptional sidewall quality, without the time or cost of tooling.

Download the direct digital production white paper

Modular Platform Grows with Manufacturing Needs

Delivered in configurable units for anytime scalability, Figure 4 allows manufacturing capacity to grow alongside demand – from a standalone printer for rapid prototyping and low volume direct 3D production, to modular systems that grow as your volume grows, up to a fully-automated, fully-integrated factory solution.

The broad and expanding range of materials available for Figure 4 addresses a wide variety of applications needs, for functional prototyping, direct production of end-use parts, molding and casting, and includes rigid and durable with thermoplastic-like behaviors, rubber-like, castable, heat resistant and biocompatible capable materials.

Advance Your Workflow
Figure 4 solutions use 3D Sprint, 3D Systems’ advanced software for file preparation, editing, printing, and management from a single, intuitive interface. 3D Sprint automatically generates exceptionally efficient supports and optimization requiring far less material, which can lead to significant savings.
Maximize Your Production
3D Connect brings a new level of management in 3D production, with fleet monitoring and remote diagnostic applications. 3D Connect Service provides a secure cloud-based connection to 3D Systems service teams for proactive and preventative support to enable better service, improve uptime and deliver production assurance for your system.

3D printing with plastics offers many choices for engineering grade materials, elastomers and composites. Do you need flexibility? Strength? Bio-compatibility? More?
3D print with plastics to build almost anything - used for prototyping, manufacturing, anatomical models and more. Select a plastic material and 3D technology to deliver the characteristics you need.

Interested in purchasing a printer?

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Figure 4 Solutions

Figure 4 Production

Industry’s first customizable, fully-integrated factory solution for direct digital production

Figure 4 Modular

Scalable, semi-automated 3D manufacturing solution designed to scale with growth

Figure 4 Standalone

Ultra-fast and affordable for same day prototyping and low-volume production

Figure 4 Jewelry

Ultra-fast and affordable 3D printing solution for jewelry design and manufacturing workflows

3D printing for "dummies" or "what is a 3D printer?"

1 3D printing term
2 3D printing methods

2. 1 Extrusion printing
2.2 Melting, sintering or gluing
2.3 Stereolithography
2.4 Lamination

3 Fused Deposition Printing (FDM)

3.1 Consumables
3.2 Extruder
3.3 Working platform
3.4 Positioners
3.5 Control
3.6 Varieties of

4 Laser stereolithography (SLA)

4.1 Lasers and projectors
4.2 Cuvette and resin
4.3 Types of

3D printing term

The term 3D printing has several synonyms, one of which quite briefly and accurately characterizes the essence of the process - "additive manufacturing", that is, production by adding material. The term was not coined by chance, because this is the main difference between multiple 3D printing technologies and the usual methods of industrial production, which in turn received the name "subtractive technologies", that is, "subtractive". If during milling, grinding, cutting and other similar procedures, excess material is removed from the workpiece, then in the case of additive manufacturing, material is gradually added until a solid model is obtained. nine0048

Soon 3D printing will even be tested on the International Space Station

Strictly speaking, many traditional methods could be classified as "additive" in the broad sense of the word - for example, casting or riveting. However, it should be borne in mind that in these cases, either the consumption of materials is required for the manufacture of specific tools used in the production of specific parts (as in the case of casting), or the whole process is reduced to joining ready-made parts (welding, riveting, etc.). In order for the technology to be classified as “3D printing”, the final product must be built from raw materials, not blanks, and the formation of objects must be arbitrary - that is, without the use of forms. The latter means that additive manufacturing requires a software component. Roughly speaking, additive manufacturing requires computer control so that the shape of final products can be determined by building digital models. It was this factor that delayed the widespread adoption of 3D printing until the moment when numerical control and 3D design became widely available and highly productive. nine0048

3D printing techniques

3D printing technologies are numerous, and there are even more names for them due to patent restrictions. However, you can try to divide technologies into main areas:

Extrusion printing

This includes methods such as deposition deposition (FDM) and multi-jet printing (MJM). This method is based on the extrusion (extrusion) of consumables with the sequential formation of the finished product. As a rule, consumables consist of thermoplastics or composite materials based on them. nine0048

Melting, sintering or bonding

This approach is based on bonding powdered material together. Formation is done in different ways. The simplest is gluing, as is the case with 3D inkjet printing (3DP). Such printers deposit thin layers of powder onto the build platform, which are then selectively bonded with a binder. Powders can be made up of virtually any material that can be ground to a powder—plastic, wood, metal. nine0048

This model of James Bond's Aston Martin was successfully printed on Voxeljet's SLS printer and blown up just as successfully during the filming of Skyfall instead of the expensive original

sintering (SLS and DMLS) and smelting (SLM), which allow you to create all-metal parts. As with 3D inkjet printing, these devices apply thin layers of powder, but the material is not glued together, but sintered or melted using a laser. Laser sintering (SLS) is used to work with both plastic and metal powders, although metal pellets usually have a more fusible shell, and after printing they are additionally sintered in special ovens. DMLS is a variant of SLS installations with more powerful lasers that allow sintering metal powders directly without additives. SLM printers provide not just sintering of particles, but their complete melting, which allows you to create monolithic models that do not suffer from the relative fragility caused by the porosity of the structure. As a rule, printers for working with metal powders are equipped with vacuum working chambers, or they replace air with inert gases. Such a complication of the design is caused by the need to work with metals and alloys subject to oxidation - for example, with titanium. nine0048

Stereolithography

How an SLA printer works

Stereolithography printers use special liquid materials called "photopolymer resins". The term "photopolymerization" refers to the ability of a material to harden when exposed to light. As a rule, such materials react to ultraviolet irradiation.

Resin is poured into a special container with a movable platform, which is installed in a position near the surface of the liquid. The layer of resin covering the platform corresponds to one layer of the digital model. Then a thin layer of resin is processed by a laser beam, hardening at the points of contact. At the end of illumination, the platform together with the finished layer is immersed to the thickness of the next layer, and illumination is performed again. nine0048

Lamination

Laminating (LOM) 3D printers workflow

Some 3D printers build models using sheet materials - paper, foil, plastic film.

Layers of material are glued on top of each other and cut to the contours of the digital model using a laser or a blade.

These machines are well suited for prototyping and can use very cheap consumables, including regular office paper. However, the complexity and noise of these printers, coupled with the limitations of the models they produce, limit their popularity. nine0048

Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) and Laser Stereolithography (SLA) are the most popular 3D printing methods used in the home and office.

Let's take a closer look at these technologies.

Fused Deposition Printing (FDM)

FDM is perhaps the simplest and most affordable 3D construction method, which makes it very popular.
High demand for FDM printers is driving device and consumable prices down rapidly, along with technology advances towards ease of use and improved reliability. nine0048

Consumables

ABS filament spool and finished model

FDM printers are designed to print with thermoplastics, which are usually supplied as thin filaments wound on spools. The range of "clean" plastics is very wide. One of the most popular materials is polylactide or "PLA plastic". This material is made from corn or sugar cane, which makes it non-toxic and environmentally friendly, but makes it relatively short-lived. ABS plastic, on the other hand, is very durable and wear-resistant, although it is susceptible to direct sunlight and can release small amounts of harmful fumes when heated. Many plastic items that we use on a daily basis are made from this material: housings for household appliances, plumbing fixtures, plastic cards, toys, etc. nine0048

In addition to PLA and ABS, printing is possible with nylon, polycarbonate, polyethylene and many other thermoplastics that are widely used in modern industry. More exotic materials are also possible, such as polyvinyl alcohol, known as "PVA plastic". This material dissolves in water, which makes it very useful for printing complex geometric patterns. But more on that below.

Model made from Laywoo-D3. Changing the extrusion temperature allows you to achieve different shades and simulate annual rings

It is not necessary to print with homogeneous plastics. It is also possible to use composite materials imitating wood, metals, stone. Such materials use all the same thermoplastics, but with impurities of non-plastic materials.

So, Laywoo-D3 consists partly of natural wood dust, which allows you to print "wooden" products, including furniture.

The material called BronzeFill is filled with real bronze, and models made from it can be ground and polished, achieving a high similarity to products made from pure bronze. nine0048

One has only to remember that thermoplastics serve as a binding element in composite materials - they determine the thresholds of strength, thermal stability and other physical and chemical properties of finished models.

Extruder

Extruder - FDM print head. Strictly speaking, this is not entirely true, because the head consists of several parts, of which only the feed mechanism is directly "extruder". However, by tradition, the term "extruder" is commonly used as a synonym for the entire print assembly. nine0048

FDM extruder general design

The extruder is designed for melting and applying thermoplastic thread. The first component is the thread feed mechanism, which consists of rollers and gears driven by an electric motor. The mechanism feeds the thread into a special heated metal tube with a small diameter nozzle, called a "hot end" or simply a "nozzle". The same mechanism is used to remove the thread if a change of material is needed. nine0048

The hot end is used to heat and melt the thread fed by the puller. As a rule, nozzles are made from brass or aluminum, although more heat-resistant, but also more expensive materials can be used. For printing with the most popular plastics, a brass nozzle is quite enough. The “nozzle” itself is attached to the end of the tube with a threaded connection and can be replaced with a new one in case of wear or if a change in diameter is necessary. The nozzle diameter determines the thickness of the molten filament and, as a result, affects the print resolution. The heating of the hot end is controlled by a thermistor. Temperature control is very important, because when the material is overheated, pyrolysis can occur, that is, the decomposition of plastic, which contributes both to the loss of the properties of the material itself and to clogging of the nozzle. nine0048

PrintBox3D One FDM Printer Extruder

To prevent the filament from melting too early, the top of the hot end is cooled by heatsinks and fans. This point is of great importance, since thermoplastics that pass the glass transition temperature significantly expand in volume and increase the friction of the material with the walls of the hot end. If the length of such a section is too long, the pulling mechanism may not have enough strength to push the thread. nine0048

The number of extruders may vary depending on the purpose of the 3D printer. The simplest options use a single printhead. The dual extruder greatly expands the capabilities of the device, allowing you to print one model in two different colors, as well as using different materials. The last point is important when building complex models with overhanging structural elements: FDM printers cannot print “over the air”, since the applied layers require support. In the case of hinged elements, temporary support structures have to be printed, which are removed after printing is completed. The removal process is fraught with damage to the model itself and requires accuracy. In addition, if the model has a complex structure with internal cavities that are difficult to access, building conventional supports may not be practical due to the difficulty in removing excess material. nine0048

Finished model with PVA supports (white) before and after washing

In such cases, the same water-soluble polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) comes in handy. Using a dual extruder, you can build a model from waterproof thermoplastic using PVA to create supports.

After printing, PVA can be simply dissolved in water and a complex product of perfect quality can be obtained.

Some FDM printers can use three or even four extruders. nine0048

Working platform

Heated platform covered with removable glass work table

Models are built on a special platform, often equipped with heating elements. Preheating is required for a wide range of plastics, including the popular ABS, which are subject to a high degree of shrinkage when cooled. The rapid loss of volume by cold coats compared to freshly applied material can lead to model distortion or delamination. The heating of the platform makes it possible to significantly equalize the temperature gradient between the upper and lower layers. nine0048

Heating is not recommended for some materials. A typical example is PLA plastic, which requires a fairly long time to harden. Heating PLA can lead to deformation of the lower layers under the weight of the upper ones. When working with PLA, measures are usually taken not to heat up, but to cool the model. Such printers have characteristic open cases and additional fans blowing fresh layers of the model.

Calibration screw for work platform covered with blue masking tape

The platform needs to be calibrated before printing to ensure that the nozzle does not hit the applied layers and move too far causing air-to-air printing resulting in plastic vermicelli. The calibration process can be either manual or automatic. In manual mode, calibration is performed by positioning the nozzle at different points on the platform and adjusting the platform inclination using the support screws to achieve the optimal distance between the surface and the nozzle.

As a rule, platforms are equipped with an additional element - a removable table. This design simplifies the cleaning of the working surface and facilitates the removal of the finished model. Stages are made from various materials, including aluminum, acrylic, glass, etc. The choice of material for the manufacture of the stage depends on the presence of heating and consumables for which the printer is optimized.

For a better adhesion of the first layer of the model to the surface of the table, additional tools are often used, including polyimide film, glue and even hairspray! But the most popular tool is inexpensive, but effective masking tape. Some manufacturers make perforated tables that hold the model well but are difficult to clean. In general, the expediency of applying additional funds to the table depends on the consumable material and the material of the table itself. nine0048

Positioning mechanisms

Scheme of operation of positioning mechanisms

Of course, the print head must move relative to the working platform, and unlike conventional office printers, positioning must be carried out not in two, but in three planes, including height adjustment.

Positioning pattern may vary. The simplest and most common option involves mounting the print head on perpendicular guides driven by stepper motors and providing positioning along the X and Y axes. nine0048

Vertical positioning is carried out by moving the working platform.

On the other hand, it is possible to move the extruder in one plane and the platforms in two.

SeemeCNC ORION Delta Printer

One option that is gaining popularity is the delta coordinate system.

Such devices are called "delta robots" in the industry.

In delta printers, the print head is suspended on three manipulators, each of which moves along a vertical rail.

The synchronous symmetrical movement of the manipulators allows you to change the height of the extruder above the platform, and the asymmetric movement causes the head to move in the horizontal plane.

A variant of this system is the reverse delta design, where the extruder is fixed to the ceiling of the working chamber, and the platform moves on three support arms. nine0048

Delta printers have a cylindrical build area, and their design makes it easy to increase the height of the working area with minimal design changes by extending the rails.

In the end, everything depends on the decision of the designers, but the fundamental principle does not change.

Control

Typical Arduino-based controller with add-on modules

The operation of the FDM printer, including nozzle and platform temperature, filament feed rate, and stepper motors for positioning the extruder, is controlled by fairly simple electronic controllers. Most controllers are based on the Arduino platform, which has an open architecture. nine0048

The programming language used by the printers is called G-code (G-Code) and consists of a list of commands executed in turn by the 3D printer systems. G-code is compiled by programs called "slicers" - standard 3D printer software that combines some of the features of graphics editors with the ability to set print options through a graphical interface. The choice of slicer depends on the printer model. RepRap printers use open source slicers such as Skeinforge, Replicator G and Repetier-Host. Some companies make printers that require proprietary software. nine0048

Program code for printing is generated using slicers

As an example, we can mention Cube printers from 3D Systems. There are companies that offer proprietary software but allow third-party software, as is the case with the latest generation of MakerBot 3D printers.

Slicers are not intended for 3D design per se. This task is done with CAD editors and requires some 3D design skills. Although beginners should not despair: digital models of a wide variety of designs are offered on many sites, often even for free. Finally, some companies and individuals offer 3D design services for custom printing. nine0048

Finally, 3D printers can be used in conjunction with 3D scanners to automate the process of digitizing objects. Many of these devices are designed specifically to work with 3D printers. Notable examples include the 3D Systems Sense handheld scanner and the MakerBot Digitizer handheld desktop scanner.

MakerBot Replicator 5th Generation FDM Printer with built-in control module on the top of the frame

The user interface of a 3D printer can consist of a simple USB port for connecting to a personal computer. In such cases, the device is actually controlled by the slicer. nine0048

The disadvantage of this simplification is a rather high probability of printing failure when the computer freezes or slows down.

A more advanced option includes an internal memory or memory card interface to make the process standalone.

These models are equipped with control modules that allow you to adjust many print parameters (such as print speed or extrusion temperature). The module may include a small LCD display or even a mini-tablet. nine0048

Varieties of FDM printers

Professional Stratasys Fortus 360mc FDM printer that allows printing with nylon

FDM printers are very, very diverse, ranging from the simplest homemade RepRap printers to industrial installations capable of printing large-sized objects.

Stratasys, founded by Scott Crump, the inventor of FDM technology, is a leader in the production of industrial installations. nine0048

You can build the simplest FDM printers yourself. Such devices are called RepRap, where "Rep" indicates the possibility of "replication", that is, self-reproduction.

RepRap printers can be used to print custom built plastic parts.

Controller, rails, belts, motors and other components can be easily purchased separately.

Of course, assembling such a device on your own requires serious technical and even engineering skills. nine0048

Some manufacturers make it easy by selling DIY kits, but these kits still require a good understanding of the technology. RepRap Printers nine0048

And, despite their "homemade nature", RepRap printers are quite capable of producing models with quality at the level of expensive branded counterparts.

Ordinary users who do not want to delve into the intricacies of the process, but require only a convenient device for household use, can purchase a ready-made FDM printer.

Many companies are focusing on the development of the consumer market segment, offering 3D printers for sale that are ready to print “right out of the box” and do not require serious computer skills. nine0048

3D Systems Cube consumer 3D printer

The most famous example of a consumer 3D printer is the 3D Systems Cube.

While it doesn't boast a huge build area, ultra-fast print speeds, or superb build quality, it's easy to use, affordable, and safe: This printer has received the necessary certification to be used even by children.

Mankati FDM printer demonstration: http://youtu.be/51rypJIK4y0 nine0048

Laser Stereolithography (SLA)

Stereolithographic 3D printers are widely used in dental prosthetics

Stereolithographic printers are the second most popular and widespread after FDM printers.

These units deliver exceptional print quality.

The resolution of some SLA printers is measured in a matter of microns - it is not surprising that these devices quickly won the love of jewelers and dentists. nine0048

The software side of laser stereolithography is almost identical to FDM printing, so we will not repeat ourselves and will only touch on the distinctive features of the technology.

Lasers and projectors

Projector illumination of a photopolymer model using Kudo3D Titan DLP printer as an example

The cost of stereolithography printers is rapidly declining due to growing competition due to high demand and the use of new technologies that reduce the cost of construction. nine0048

Although the technology is generically referred to as "laser" stereolithography, most recent developments use UV LED projectors for the most part.

Projectors are cheaper and more reliable than lasers, do not require the use of delicate mirrors to deflect the laser beam, and have higher performance. The latter is explained by the fact that the contour of the whole layer is illuminated as a whole, and not sequentially, point by point, as is the case with laser options. This variant of the technology is called projection stereolithography, "DLP-SLA" or simply "DLP". However, both options are currently common - both laser and projector versions. nine0048

Cuvette and resin

Photopolymer resin is poured into a cuvette

A photopolymer resin that looks like epoxy is used as consumables for stereolithography printers. Resins can have a variety of characteristics, but they all share one key feature for 3D printing applications: these materials harden when exposed to ultraviolet light. Hence, in fact, the name "photopolymer".

When polymerized, resins can have a wide variety of physical characteristics. Some resins are like rubber, others are hard plastics like ABS. You can choose different colors and degrees of transparency. The main disadvantage of resins and SLA printing in general is the cost of consumables, which significantly exceeds the cost of thermoplastics. nine0048

On the other hand, stereolithography printers are mainly used by jewelers and dentists who do not need to build large parts but appreciate the savings from fast and accurate prototyping. Thus, SLA printers and consumables pay for themselves very quickly.

Example of a model printed on a laser stereolithographic 3D printer

Resin is poured into a cuvette, which can be equipped with a lowering platform. In this case, the printer uses a leveling device to flatten the thin layer of resin covering the platform just prior to irradiation. As the model is being made, the platform, together with the finished layers, is “embedded” in the resin. Upon completion of printing, the model is removed from the cuvette, treated with a special solution to remove liquid resin residues and placed in an ultraviolet oven, where the final illumination of the model is performed. nine0048

Some SLA and DLP printers work in an "inverted" scheme: the model is not immersed in the consumable, but "pulled" out of it, while the laser or projector is placed under the cuvette, and not above it. This approach eliminates the need to level the surface after each exposure, but requires the use of a cuvette made of a material transparent to ultraviolet light, such as quartz glass.

The accuracy of stereolithographic printers is extremely high. For comparison, the standard for vertical resolution for FDM printers is considered to be 100 microns, and some variants of SLA printers allow you to apply layers as thin as 15 microns. But this is not the limit. The problem, rather, is not so much in the accuracy of lasers, but in the speed of the process: the higher the resolution, the lower the print speed. The use of digital projectors allows you to significantly speed up the process, because each layer is illuminated entirely. As a result, some DLP printer manufacturers claim to be able to print with a vertical resolution of one micron! nine0048

Video from CES 2013 showing Formlabs Form1 stereolithography 3D printer in action: http://youtu.be/IjaUasw64VE

Stereolithography Printer Options

Formlabs Form1 Desktop Stereolithography Printer

As with FDM printers, SLA printers come in a wide range in terms of size, features and cost. Professional installations can cost tens if not hundreds of thousands of dollars and weigh a couple of tons, but the rapid development of desktop SLA and DLP printers is gradually reducing the cost of equipment without compromising print quality. nine0048

Models such as the Titan 1 promise to make stereolithographic 3D printing affordable for small businesses and even home use at around $1,000. Formlabs' Form 1 is available now for a factory selling price of $3,299.

The developer of the DLP printer Peachy generally intends to overcome the lower price barrier of $100.

At the same time, the cost of photopolymer resins remains quite high, although the average price has fallen from $150 to $50 per liter over the past couple of years. nine0048

Of course, the growing demand for stereolithographic printers will stimulate the growth in the production of consumables, which will lead to further price reductions.

Go to the main page of the Encyclopedia of 3D printing

3D printer produced a semi-soft jumping robot

Inspired by the "wise" arrangement of biological objects, roboticists began to design robots with fully or partially soft bodies. Such robots should be more resistant, adaptive and safe in contact with a person than traditional rigid robots. American scientists managed to overcome the main difficulties in the design and manufacture of "semi-soft" robots - the complexity of the manufacturing process in general and the articulation of soft and hard components in particular. Using multi-component 3D printing, they created a robot whose stiffness gradually decreases from the core to the outer shell. The strange-looking creature, by burning butane and oxygen, is capable of performing numerous autonomous jumps. nine0048

Robots are usually assembled from solid components to ensure high precision and controllability. The construction of aluminum and steel robots involves the use of large equipment and a complex assembly process. Therefore, in recent years, prototypes of "soft-bodied" devices have appeared, built in the image and likeness of invertebrates - for example, cephalopods [1] - and vertebrates, such as snakes [2] or fish [3]. The use of plastic materials facilitates the development of bionic robotic systems* that are more flexible, stable and safer than their rigid counterparts.

* — The principles of structure and functioning, peeped from biological objects, are actively used in architecture and various engineering technologies (the direction was called bionics ). Particular attention is paid to the mechanisms of self-assembly and functioning of DNA: " Bionic constructor Elpul " [4]. The use of the "living" molecules themselves in the design of nanorobots is no less interesting and promising: " Golacteco danger: DNA robots in a living organism "[5], " Bioengineers have learned to obtain DNA structures whose assembly and disassembly can be controlled "[6].

However, the production of soft robots is also not without significant technical difficulties. The bodies of such systems are made in unique shapes and assembled in stages. The forms themselves are complex, and a lot of time is spent on their creation, which is especially unprofitable when creating prototypes - non-serial and constantly improving copies. Many types of robots require rigid components to power and control soft bodies, and hard component-soft body junctions are common re-failure sites. nine0048

In nature, many animals use stiffness gradients to articulate hard and soft body components. Gradients help to minimize the stress that destroys the places of such connections. One of the reasons why biological systems have an advantage over engineering systems is that in nature, objects are produced by self-organization, and therefore increasing the complexity of the system is much “cheaper”. New digital technologies such as 3D printing [7] allow designers to slightly approach this level of structural complexity, but on a larger scale and with fewer materials: the consumption of substances does not depend on the complexity of the geometry. nine0048

Employees at Harvard University and the University of California used a “multi-material”, i.e. printing with a wide range of materials, 3D printer ( Connex500, Stratasys) to create a functional robot body, eliminating the need for complex mold-making and assembly processes [8]. The body of the robot consists of two nested hemispheres. Plastic lower hemisphere is a combustion chamber - a small depression that defines the initial volume, which is filled with oxygen and butane . Ignition from a spark causes volumetric expansion of gases, stretching of the hemisphere and lifting the robot into the air (Fig. 1). The upper hemisphere is characterized by uneven elasticity due to a gradient of nine layers of different stiffness - from very flexible (like rubber) to absolutely hard (like thermoplastic). The hard layer of the upper hemisphere not only provides communication with the control components, but also prevents unwanted expansion by directing the energy of combustion gases downward and thereby increasing the efficiency of the jump. Pneumatic "legs", constructed according to the same scheme from two nested hemispheres, tilt the body before the jump, setting the direction of movement. This separation of power and control drives simplifies the start-up of the device and enhances control over the direction of movement (Fig. 2). nine0048

Figure 1. How the robot works. A detailed explanation is in the text of the article. To initiate a jump, the robot selectively inflates its legs, tilting its body in the intended direction of the jump. When the gas mixture burns, the lower hemisphere inflates, pushing the robot off the ground and lifting it into the air. When landing, the legs deflate. Figure from [8].

Figure 2. Components that provide movement: functional connections of power and control. Main module contains voltage source ( 1 ), special circuit board ( 2 ), battery ( 3 ), oxygen cartridge ( 4 ), butane fuel cell ( 5 ), miniature air compressor ( 6 ) , pressure regulator ( 7 ), a set of six solenoid valves ( 8-13 ) and a network of channels for establishing communication between components. The main module is mechanically connected to the solid "body" of the robot by high-strength fasteners, and functionally - by four tubes (three pneumatic ones for the "legs" and one more for delivering fuel to the combustion chamber) and two wires (generate a spark in the chamber). nine0355 Blue indicates air ducts, red fuel channels, yellow electric wires. Figure from [8].

To understand how soft the upper hemisphere should be made, three options were examined: hard, soft, and with a gradual layer-by-layer transition from soft to hard. While a perfectly smooth transition would have been ideal, the fabrication technique was limited to a stepwise gradient of up to nine layers. The lower hemisphere by default had to be absolutely soft - to ensure repulsion. nine0048

The results of tensile and twist tests show that the hardness-graded hemisphere reduces the maximum stress of the material by 30%, which is comparable to the maximum stress of the soft hemisphere (the "champion" in this competition).

Simulation of jumps revealed that the soft upper hemisphere is inefficient for directing the energy of combustion gases downward, that is, it reduces the strength of the jump. The best results, as expected, were shown by an absolutely solid hemisphere. However, the question arose of how these three types of hemispheres would behave when landing. nine0048

A model experiment (Fig. 3) with an impact force on the surface of 50 Newtons showed that the hard hemisphere deforms much less, but it experiences the entire impact force immediately upon landing, while the impact force is distributed gradually over the semi-soft body of the robot. A soft body does not feel any increase in the impact force until its small hard core comes into contact with the surface, which reacts like a completely solid hemisphere, immediately taking on all 50 N. It turned out that the hard and soft hemispheres extinguish only 13 and 73% of the energy, respectively shock absorbed by the "semi-soft" robot. This testifies to the greatest efficiency of a body graded by stiffness in momentum distribution, and therefore in reducing peak stresses and ensuring a soft landing. nine0048

Figure 3. Comparison of reaction to impact on the surface (simulation of landing of three types of upper hemispheres). Robot hits a surface at a 45° angle. This angle corresponds to particularly extreme "landing" conditions and correlates with landing indicators observed in hopping experiments. The magnitude of the stress that occurs in the body upon impact with a force of 50 N can be estimated on a color scale. The image was created based on the results of finite element analysis. Figure from [8]. nine0356

Two types of 3D-printed robots have been tested and confirmed the simulation results. A robot with a solid upper hemisphere bounced 1.12 m using 40 ml of butane and 120 ml of oxygen. A robot with a multilayer (graded in stiffness) hemisphere flew up to 0.25 m with the same fuel consumption. It was decided not to print a flexible robot, since the simulation predicted its impracticality. Although the semi-soft robot did not jump as high, it endured landing better (Fig. 4 and video). In one test, the body of a rigid robot collapsed upon landing after only five bounces. The robot with a semi-soft body withstood as many as 10 and remained fit for further use. nine0048

Figure 4. Experimental robot jumps. a - The moment of contact of two types of robots with the surface after the jump . The solid robot ( left ) breaks upon landing. The semi-soft robot absorbs impact energy and survives. b - A semi-soft robot jumps from an inclined surface onto a table. From left to right: robot prepares for the jump, oxygen and butane are supplied to the combustion chamber; when the fuel is ignited, the robot rises into the air; the robot lands on the table. nine0355 to Directional jump. The robot leans back while jumping, providing a soft landing on inflated "legs". After landing, he leans forward and returns to the “prejump” position. Figure from [8].

Results of the experimental test shown in Figure 4. The first part compares the landing of two types of robots. In the second part, a semi-soft robot jumps from an inclined surface (in addition, takeoff in slow motion is shown), and in the final part, it makes a directed jump on a flat surface. nine0048

Most of the further experiments with semi-soft robots were carried out without the main module and with the supply of fuel and spark from external sources in order to simplify tests and reduce the mass of the system by up to 50%. At the same time, the robots withstood more than 100 jumps. A full-fledged sample could perform an unattainable number of autonomous jumps for previous developments - 21 (plus 89 externally controlled ones). He jumped 0.76 m (six body heights) and bounced directionally to the side 0.15 m (half the body length). nine0048

In a recent experiment by Swiss scientists, the robot they created by analogy with Roly-Poly-Vstanka could also perform numerous jumps on uneven terrain, and took the same position after landing in any orientation [9]. In contrast, the semi-soft American robot cannot take a pre-jump position on an uneven landing surface, but it is able to set the direction of the jump. In addition, it is adapted to store fuel for 32 jumps and is monolithic - it does not have any sliding parts or traditional articulations that can be deformed by rough terrain and become dirty. Like the Swiss "Vanka", the American robot printed on a 3D printer is not damaged by fire during microexplosions of gases in the combustion chamber. nine0048

Fabrication of soft robots by multi-component 3D printing has numerous advantages over traditional molding methods. This prototyping method has high performance: it allows you to quickly reproduce samples (without additional investments, even with increasing morphological complexity), as well as print monolithic objects from several materials, which eliminates the disadvantages of complex joints. But the most important feature is the ability to create objects with a stiffness gradient, which reduces the stress that occurs at the junction of materials. The existing range of substances for 3D printing is quite limited and, perhaps, suitable only for the manufacture of prototypes, but in the near future it will certainly increase and contribute to the expansion of the application of the described approach in robotics. nine0048

Shepherd R.F., Ilievski F., Choi W., Morin S.A., Stokes A.A., Mazzeo A.D. et al. (2011). multigait soft robot. PNAS . 108 (51), 20400–20403;
Onal C.D., Rus D. (2013). Autonomous undulatory serpentine locomotion utilizing body dynamics of a fluidic soft robot. Bioinspir. biomim. 8 (2), 026003;
Marchese A.D., Onal C.D., Rus D. (2014). Autonomous soft robotic fish capable of escape maneuvers using fluidic elastomer actuators. nine0355 Soft Robotics .
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Figure 4 standalone 3d printer