Printers that print 3d objects

Since the surface of the model is perfectly smooth, SLA has become used in the jewelry and dental industries.

Pros:

Cons:

DLP technology appeared later than SLA, but it is very similar to it. The main difference is that the light source is not a focused beam, but a projector. This made it possible to illuminate the entire layer at once, which significantly accelerated the production of models. The quality of the surface was slightly inferior to SLA, but modern DLP printers, in terms of the quality of models, are almost as good as SLA technology.

How DLP works

Pros:

• Faster production of models due to the illumination of the entire layer

• Consumables are slightly cheaper than SLA

• High surface quality (although may be inferior to SLA)

Cons:

LCD technology is the youngest of all. The DLP principle is taken as a basis, but an LCD display is used as a matrix or illumination pattern. LEDs are used as a source of UV light in LCD technology. Thanks to inexpensive components, we managed to get a simple, but high-quality and affordable photopolymer printer.

How the LCD printer works

Pros:

• small cost

• Cheap parts

Cons:

• Low accuracy compared to SLA and DLP (for jewelers and dentists, the quality of LSD prints may not be enough, although more and more accurate models appear with the development of technology)

• Possible stray light

• The quality of models may decrease at the edges of the printable area (this can be corrected programmatically)

Resins that are used as a consumable for photopolymer printing can smell strongly and unpleasantly during operation. Try to use the printer in a well-ventilated area, or choose a printer with a sealed cabinet and filter.

When choosing an LCD printer, pay special attention to the rigidity and positioning accuracy of the platform along the Z axis. If there are poor quality guides along the Z axis or even a slight play, then the surface quality of the finished model may turn out to be sloppy or the model will turn out to be unevenly striped.

Rating of the best LCD 3D printers for home

Anycubic Photon Mono

This is an LCD printer with a matrix that allows you to increase the speed and accuracy of printing. Anycubic Photon Mono will be a good helper for hobbyists and modellers.

Anycubic Photon Mono SE

Anycubic Photon Mono SE has an unusual parallel light source. This minimizes distortion at the edges of the printable area. You can effectively use the entire working area of ​​the machine and produce many small models at a time.

Phrozen Sonic Mini 4K

Model with high resolution LCD display and large print area. The monochrome display transmits UV rays better and allows you to print much faster than similar devices with a conventional display. The manufacturer claims a screen life of more than 2000 hours. Phrozen Sonic mini 4k is suitable for almost any task.

Wanhao GR1

Wanhao GR1 has high precision and large print area (140x78x200mm). The manufacturer tried to reduce distortion at the edges of the display, this allows you to make the most of the entire work area. High precision and large print area make Wanhao GR1 not only for hobby use, but also for production.

Anycubic Photon Zero

Small and very budgetary LCD device. Its resolution and small working area (total 97x54x150 mm) is enough for printing small miniatures, figurines or small engineering models. Anycubic Photon Zero is a good choice for beginners who want to get into photopolymer printing without spending a lot of money.

Choosing an FDM printer

If you plan to produce large and diverse functional models or experiment, a 3D printer that prints using FDM technology is an excellent choice.

First, decide on the size of the printable area and the properties that the finished model should have. After all, some materials require a closed chamber or good airflow to work.

Some printer models can be “upgraded” in the future. For example, if necessary, purchase spare parts for a closed case, put a nozzle of a different diameter, or change the thermal barrier to an all-metal one. But not all manufacturers provide for the possibility of such upgrades.

Printer design

Despite the same principle of operation, there are several different mechanics, which have their pros and cons.

Kinematics “Prusa” (Prusa)

Perhaps the most popular kinematics among home FDM devices. Mainly due to its simplicity and low cost. The main feature is the table that moves along the Y axis, while the extruder moves along the rest of the axes. Because of this, such kinematics was nicknamed “dragstol”.

Prusa kinematics

Pros:

Cons:

• Slow print speeds. A massive table with a model is forced to constantly move along the Y axis, because of this, print quality will be worse at high speeds.

• Some models have design flaws (for example, insufficient frame rigidity), they can be fixed, but for this you have to be a little inventor. Or find a ready-made solution on the Internet.

This category also includes 3D printers with console kinematics. The same prusa, only halved. Because of this, the frame is less rigid, but the printer itself is more compact.

Kinematics Ultimaker

The extruder moves along the X-Y axes, and the table only along the Z axis. All motors are trying to be fixed on the body to lighten the weight of the moving mechanisms, thanks to which it is possible to achieve high print quality at high speeds.

Ultimaker kinematic diagram

Pros:

Cons:

H-BOT or Core-XY

These are 2 similar but more complex kinematics - the table moves only along the Z axis, and the extruder along the X-Y. But to move the extruder, 1 or 2 long belts and 2 stepper motors work in concert.

Example Core-XY kinematics

Pros:

• High print quality

• High print speeds without loss of quality.

• Can be easily closed completely

Cons:

MakerBot Kinematics

Similar to Ultimaker kinematics, but one of the motors is located on the Y or X axis carriage.

Pros:

Cons:

Delta

Deltas do not have the usual XYZ axes. There are 3 columns in the deltas, along which the carriages move, and the position of the extruder in space is calculated using a complex formula. The table is usually statically fixed to the body.

Delta printer example

Pros:

Cons:

Nuances of choosing an FDM 3D printer

In addition to kinematics, when choosing a printer, it is important to take into account some design features.

One or two extruders?

Two extruders can be used for dual color printing, but most commonly the second extruder is used for solvent support printing. If you need to print complex parts with internal cavities, then you should choose a dual extruder printer.

Closed or open printer?

Printing of functional models and parts uses plastic, which usually requires a closed chamber. If you plan to print functional prototypes or various models, you should look at printers with a closed chamber.

Bowden or direct?

There are 2 types of material supply to the print head of the printer - bowden and direct.

In a bowden, the feed mechanism motor is located on the printer body. This allows you to reduce the weight of the extruder and print at higher speeds without losing quality. But because of the long tube, printing with very soft plastics can be problematic.

Bowden feed pattern

In direct feeding, the motor and feed mechanism are located on the extruder. This increases the weight of the print head, but allows you to print with any kind of plastics.

Direct feeding scheme

Heated table or not?

The heating of the table improves the adhesion of the first layer of the model. And engineering plastics cannot be printed without a heated table.

Many manufacturers add useful additional features. They do not affect the quality of the print, but save time and nerves. The most useful additional functions are the filament presence sensor and remembering the print location after a power outage.

Filament sensor.

It will automatically pause printing if the plastic runs out. When there is a little plastic left on the spool, this feature will allow you not to stand over the guard printer until the old spool runs out in order to have time to push in a new bar “on the go”.

Power outage protection.

Remembering where to print when the power goes out can save you a lot of nerves when printing large models. You won't have to worry that after a power outage, you will have to run the model again for many hours or cut and reprint a piece of the model. It is especially disappointing to throw away a complex underprinted model with supports due to a one-minute outage.

There are also many extras. features that make using the printer more comfortable. For example, automatic calibration, touch screen, Wi-Fi and others.

Rating of the best FDM 3D printers for home

Anycubic Mega Zero 2.0

Inexpensive model with Pryusha kinematics. Good for getting started with 3D printing without a big investment. Despite the low cost, Anycubic Mega Zero 2.0 has a heated table and a resume function after a power outage. Thanks to direct feed, printing with soft materials should not be difficult.

Creality3D Ender 3 Pro

A very popular device due to its low price. But despite this, the Ender 3 Pro has a heated table and a decent print area. Can be sold assembled or as a DIY kit.

Flash Forge Finder

Small home appliance intended for children or educational institutions. The Finder doesn't have a heated table, but it does have a calibration assistant, a Wi-Fi module, and other extras that make getting to know it a lot easier. All moving and heated elements are hidden as much as possible in the case so that the child cannot get burned.

Wanhao Duplicator 6 Plus

Wanhao Duplicator 6 Plus was based on Ultimaker kinematics, but instead of bowden feed, they made direct. Because of this, it will not be possible to print super fast, without quality loss, but there will be no problems with printing with soft types of plastics. There are 2 trim levels - with a closed case and without.

Flashforge Dreamer

The Dreamer is a closed body dual extruder printer with MakerBot kinematics. Thanks to this, he can cope with printing models of any complexity. Using a second extruder for soluble support, models with complex geometries can be produced. A good choice for engineers and those who like to experiment with different materials.

FlyingBear Ghost 5

Most commonly sold as a kit (assembly kit). Assembly usually does not cause any great difficulties, even for people far from electronics or mechanics. Flying Bear is equipped with a filament sensor, a function to resume printing after a power outage and Wi-Fi connectivity.

The Flying Bear makes a great first printer for the novice user who is ready to build their own printer.

Totals

In order for the printer not to become a useless toy, you should clearly understand what it is for.

For a fan of miniatures or detailed figurines, a photopolymer printer is a good choice. A small work area is more than offset by the detail that cannot be obtained using other technologies.

For an engineer or a fan of experiments, an FDM machine with a closed chamber and two extruders is well suited. This will allow you not to limit yourself in the choice of plastics and comfortably experiment with any materials.

For a beginner who has not yet decided whether he needs 3D printing, you can opt for inexpensive machines with slick kinematics. Due to their great popularity, you can find a lot of upgrades and reviews on them. In the future, it will be possible to modify the printer for specific tasks or change it to a more suitable model.

For a child, safety is paramount. As the first children's printer, models without a heated bed are suitable, in which the main emphasis is on printing with safe PLA plastic. Or models in which all moving and heating mechanisms are hidden in the case.

A 3D printer is a handy tool, and whether it brings joy or frustration depends on the user.

What types of 3D printers are there? 3D printing technologies

This article does not pretend to be scientific, but rather a small introduction to 3D printing "for dummies".

What exactly do we mean by the concept of 3D printing?

In the early 1980s, new methods for the production of parts began to develop, based not on the removal of material, as in traditional machining technologies, but on the layer-by-layer production of a product according to a three-dimensional model obtained in CAD by adding materials in the form of plastic, ceramic, metal powders. and their bundles by thermal, diffusion or adhesive methods. And what does this mean in practice? That it became possible to create physical objects in a completely new way.

The first to patent this technology back in 1984 was Chuck Hull, who also created 3D Systems in 1986, which is still one of the industry leaders. The first commercial 3D printer, the 3D Systems SLA-1, was introduced in 1987.

Thus, we smoothly approach the story of the first and perhaps the most promising 3D printing technology today, namely photopolymer resin printing. Initially, this technology was called SLA, but over time, this name has become not entirely correct.

Photopolymer printing

The essence of photopolymer 3D printing is that a liquid photopolymer resin solidifies under the influence of light and forms a 3D model. Initially, a laser acted as a light source, and the technology was called SLA or stereolithography.

Despite the apparent simplicity, 3D Systems has spent more than 10 years to bring to market the first full-fledged commercial product. This required a shift in other technological products, such as solid-state lasers, which use a solid-state substance as an active medium.

Without going deep into the technological wilds, we can say that about 25 years of gradual development of this technology passed until 2013-2014, when SLA 3D printers cost hundreds of thousands of dollars and were available only to large companies, where they were also used very limitedly due to the high cost as equipment and materials.

Created in 2011, a startup called FormLabs reimagined Chuck Hull's ideas and developed the first desktop SLA 3D printer, which began selling for up to $3,000. Thus, it made it possible for a wide range of users to get involved in 3D printing. Over the years, FormLabs has delivered tens of thousands of its printers to market, avoided being taken over by larger players, and became the first 3D printing unicorn to be worth over $1 billion. This story was one of two turning points in the breakthrough made by 3D printing technology in recent years. But other companies also did not stand still and very soon realized that a laser as a light source for illuminating a photopolymer resin is not the only solution, and they proposed another way to form a model, which was called DLP (Digital Light Processing) .

Without going into technical details, it is important to note that the advantage of this technology lies in higher productivity due to the illumination of the entire layer at once, in contrast to the laser, which must physically illuminate the entire model, so it must be constantly moved. With a simple example, it is very easy to explain what this means. Suppose you need to print a ring, this task on printers of both technologies will take about the same time, but if you need to print 10 rings at once, DLP technology will take advantage. That is, with a DLP printer, you will print 10 rings in the same time as one, while an SLA printer will spend a certain time drawing each of the rings, although this will make it possible to achieve better quality.

A few numbers...

The Form2 SLA printer takes 11 hours and 22 minutes to print 55 models.

As a result, 12.4 minutes for one ring .

And the Uniz Slash Plus 3D printer, which is based on DLP technology, will spend only 3 hours 51 minutes printing 6 rings, it turns out one ring in 3.8 minutes .

DLP technology gained some popularity and began to compete with traditional SLA, but did not become a breakthrough, when suddenly a new revolution happened - LCD 3D printers appeared on the scene.

The principle of formation is even simpler, a powerful LED lamp, enhanced by a lens system, shines on an LCD matrix, which projects the desired image onto a polymer bath, where a 3D model is formed.

The creation of this technology in 2016 made it possible to reduce the price of a 3D printer by 10 times compared to the FormLabs Form 2 printer that was the hit of that time, the price for budget LCD 3D printers started from $300. This drastic cost reduction has greatly expanded the customer base and has given home users and small print studios the opportunity to try this technology for their needs.

What is its advantage over others, besides the price itself?

LCD, as well as DLP printers, illuminate the layer immediately, this gives them an advantage in performance, although at first users were faced with not very high quality of the models themselves. But with the advent of 3D printers with a 2K LCD matrix in 2019, and then a little later 4K, this problem was solved, and LCD printers today are superior both in speed and in the minimum layer thickness of their older brothers.

Vivid examples of 2K resolution printers are models - Elegoo Mars, Anycubic Photon S, Wanhao GR1, Phrozen Shuffle Lite, Phrozen Shuffle 2019, Phrozen Shuffle XL 2019, Phrozen Sonic, 4K - Phrozen Shuffle 4K, Phrozen Transform.

The introduction of 8K sensors in the near future, as well as the use of special monochrome sensors that increase print speed, will make this technology dominant in the 3D printer market.

PHOTOPOLYMER 3D PRINTING TECHNOLOGIES:

I hope I was able to convey to you the essence of the differences between these technologies, but now, in fact, I want to tell you why SLA / DLP / LCD 3D printing is most often chosen. Here it is immediately worth dividing printers into industrial and desktop.

industrial 3D printers are mainly used for large-scale prototyping, as well as small-scale production and mold making. With a sufficiently high productivity and good quality of the final products, this equipment is used in the automotive industry, aerospace industry, and also for printing massive objects, such as this mammoth bone, printed by Materialize in cooperation with the Belgian Royal Institute of Natural Sciences in Brussels.

Desktop SLA/DLP/LCD printers are widely used, primarily in such areas as dentistry, jewelry, ship and aircraft modeling, as well as the manufacture of unique gifts and souvenirs. You can read more about this in our articles on these topics.

The use of a 3D printer in dentistry

3D printing in prototyping

The use of a 3D printer in jewelry

3D printing in small-scale production

High detail and high-quality finish makes this 3D printing technology an excellent tool for solving numerous problems that previously had to be solved in much more time-consuming and expensive ways in the areas of activity that I mentioned above.

Photopolymer printing on a 3D printer in dentistry.

Photopolymer 3D printing in jewelry. On the right is a 3D printed master model of the bracelet.

Photopolymer printing for prototyping

Create souvenirs with photopolymer 3D printing

FDM 3D Printing Development Path

The second father of 3D printing can be safely called S. Scott Crump, who at 19In 1988, he patented FDM (Fused Deposition Modeling) technology, and in 1989, together with his wife, he created Stratasys, which is still one of the main companies in the industry.

The abbreviation FFF (Fused Filament Fabrication) is also often used for this technology, but this should not mislead you. The essence of the technologies is the same, but the names are different in order to avoid patent disputes.

So, what, in fact, was invented. The essence of the idea was that a plastic thread is fed into an extruder, where it melts at a high temperature and forms a model in layers through a small nozzle.

Based on this invention, Stratasys began to produce industrial 3D printers, which were mainly used as well as the first SLA machines in the automotive industry, aerospace industry, and with the advent of various durable plastics such as polycarbonate (PC), polyetheretherketone (PEEK), polyetherimide (PEI, Ultem), polyphenylsulfone (PPSF/PPSU), and for functional prototyping. This technology did not become widespread until more than 20 years later, the RepRap (Replicating Rapid Prototyper) project, a self-replicating mechanism for rapid prototyping, appeared.

The original idea was to create a 3D printer that another 3D printer could print, in this photo all the plastic parts of the "child" are printed on the "parent". In fact, something completely different happened - a group of enthusiasts were able to create a budget 3D printer for home or office use. The idea was quickly picked up by three geeks from New York, who created the MakerBot company and began commercial production of desktop FDM 3D printers. This was the second turning point in the modern history of 3D printing.

The cost of printers was about $1000, and this price became quite acceptable for many enthusiasts, technologists, engineers and students who are passionate about the idea of ​​3D printing.

In 2013, MakerBot was taken over by Stratasys for a record $400 million. The result of all this was that the world received a very interesting technology for creating physical objects. A huge advantage of FDM technology is its cheapness and a large selection of printing materials, which began to appear in large quantities after the start of the spread of 3D printing. FDM printers primarily spread among home users, who began numerous experiments with printing at home, you can read more about this in the article 3D printing as a hobby.

In addition, FDM printing has found its main professional application - prototyping. With the introduction of 3D printing into this process, it will never be the same again. Prototyping has become significantly cheaper and faster, and this made it possible to try many more ideas from engineers to create the highest quality and thoughtful products, more about this can also be found in the article 3D printing in prototyping. There are also active efforts to introduce FDM 3D printing into small-scale production, and this story took an unexpected turn during the COVID-19 epidemic. when doctors urgently needed to produce parts for ventilators, as well as mask holders for doctors who are forced to wear them all day.

FDM 3D printing was able to fully demonstrate its main advantages compared to classical production, namely the speed of modeling a new model and launching it into series in the shortest possible time, less than one day.

Another major advantage of FDM printing is the wide choice of materials, ranging from biodegradable PLA plastic to materials such as PEEK, which can be sterilized at high temperature and pressure.

In the near future, we expect the widespread introduction of so-called "3D printing farms", which will be able to implement the concept of "flexible production", the essence of which is that such a farm can produce any available product, and not specialize in the manufacture of any specific products. , as happens in a classic production. Today it can be spare parts for old models of railway cars, and tomorrow it can be medical mask holders or souvenir cups for competition winners or plastic end caps for furniture.

In the meantime, let's continue our story about the different types of 3D printing that arose in parallel with the development of the two mainstream technologies that I have already talked about. Many engineers and entrepreneurs in different countries and companies have realized that it is possible to start using the principles of 3D printing using other materials and ways of forming models, and this is what they came up with.

Other 3D printing

SLM (Selective Laser Melting) - selective laser melting, also called DMLM and LPBF. The principle of 3D printing here is that, under the influence of a powerful laser, metal powder melts and forms a 3D model. This allows you to create models of complex shapes and high strength, most of all this technology has been used in aerospace and medicine. A rocket is not a mass product, and some elements are much more convenient and more profitable to print on a 3D printer than to mill or cast.

Pictured above is the world's largest printed rocket engine. It was printed on the SLM 800 printer by SLM Solutions for the British aerospace company Orbex. The engine is manufactured as an all-metal nickel alloy product. SLM 3DSLM 3D printing has reduced time by 90% and costs by 50% compared to CNC machines.

In medicine, metal 3D printing has begun to be used to create individual titanium implants made directly for a particular patient, which significantly increases the chances of recovery.

EBM (Electron Beam Melting) - electron beam melting. This is a technology similar to SLS/DMLS, only here the object is formed by melting a metal powder with an electron beam in a vacuum.

SLS (Selective Laser Sintering) is selective laser sintering, another very interesting technology. The model formation process here is the same as in SLM, but instead of metal powder, polyamide or nylon powder is used. This makes it possible to form very strong, wear-resistant products of complex shapes, which, first of all, can be used as functional prototypes of future metal or durable plastic products.

SLS Printed Engine Manifold

SLS printed furniture

MJF (Multi Jet Fusion) is an original technology developed by HP that essentially repeats the principle of SLS, but does not use a laser. This gives the printer a certain performance advantage over laser technology, as it bakes the layer immediately, just as it does with LCD 3D printers, which we wrote about in detail earlier in this article. Being one of the world's technology giants, HP quickly broke into the small 3D printing market and quickly took a large share in the industrial equipment segment, unfortunately, as of 2020, HP has not started shipping its 3D printers to the Russian market.

Surgical instrument and cylinder block printed on MJF printer

PolyJet is a technology similar to conventional inkjet printing. Liquid polymer is fired through many tiny nozzles onto the surface of the printing platform, after which they are cured using ultraviolet radiation. Using this technology, you can create high-quality full-color layouts and prototypes with the highest level of detail and finish quality comparable to industrial serial samples. Unfortunately, the high cost of equipment and materials does not allow a wider implementation of this technology.

MJM (Multi Jet Modelling) is a multi-jet modeling technology similar to PolyJet, but wax can also be used as a material. The technology was developed by 3D Systems, therefore, for reasons of patent protection, it has a different name. Wax printing is widely used in the jewelry business for making individual models to order and creating master models. There are also specialized printers from SolidScape that print with a two-component wax for subsequent melting of the support material in hot water.

CJP (Color Jet Printing) is a technology, the essence of which is layer-by-layer gluing and coloring of powder based on gypsum or plastic. With this technology, you can create full-color products, and this is most often used for printing architectural models and figures of people. The cost of printing in this case is lower than with PolyJet technology, which gives more opportunities for its wider use.

LOM (Laminated object manufacturing) - a technology similar to CJP, but here the building materials are paper, each sheet of which is glued to the previous one, painted with an inkjet printer and perforated. This gives a full color 3D model and is also well suited for architectural and decorative models.

Another technology with great prospects is the combined technology of metal 3D printing, which combines 3 stages of creating a model: printing on an FDM printer with a special composite thread, where metal and polymer are mixed in certain proportions, melting the polymer and baking the metal model. Based on this technology, the American companies DeskTop Metal and MarkForged have already created their commercial models of 3D printers and started selling them both in America and Europe, but so far the technology is very crude and does not guarantee good quality of finished products. But its huge advantage is the significantly lower price of both printers and finished products. These systems have not yet been delivered to Russia, so we are waiting for the opportunity to independently evaluate their quality and effectiveness. In the next few years, this technology may become the most popular of all possible 3D printing methods.

Studio System+ by Desktop Metal

How it works:

3D printing with ceramics is also a promising direction in various industries. There are a number of companies that produce equipment that prints ceramic models. Various manufacturers use the already mentioned DLP and SLA for this, as a slightly adapted multi-jet simulation technology Ceramic binder jetting (CBJ) . This seal is used in dentistry, jewelry, as well as to create high-quality prototypes with the necessary functional properties. Also, on the basis of FDM printers, printers are being created that print with clay to create ceramic products in a new way. For example, the Italian company WASP has been offering such systems for several years based on its delta printers that print with plastic filament.

Construction 3D printers essentially also use the same construction principle as in FDM printers, only liquid concrete is applied instead of a molten filament. This makes it possible to build the walls of a 100 square meter house in about 3 days, which is significantly faster than standard construction methods and, in addition, it makes it possible to create objects of complex shapes. Of course, this direction is promising, but today it has not been widely used, although in China construction 3D printers were used to quickly build autonomous blocks for self-isolation of patients with mild coronavirus, who did not get a place in hospitals, but they were at home dangerous. An interesting fact is that the most promising housing project on Mars is also recognized as a 3D printing method.

A house printed by an Irkutsk company in Dubai in 3 days

Coronavirus boxes in China. 15 rooms were made in 1 day.

Food 3D printing is another way to use FDM technology, only here the material is edible raw materials. Chocolate printers are the most widely used. The tempered chocolate enters the extruder and forms a 3D model in layers through the nozzle. Because chocolate, unlike plastic, is a very delicate material, so it is not so easy to print with it, although it makes it possible to quickly create customized culinary masterpieces or desserts of unusual shapes. In addition to chocolate, it is possible to print using puree, dough or jam. This technology is still at an early stage of development, and perhaps in the near future we will see more advanced equipment that can be used more widely. One of the representatives of 3D printers for printing chocolate is Choc Creator.

And last but not least, the type of 3D printing that has very high hopes for the future is 3D bioprinting . At its core, this is a layer-by-layer printing, where living cells act as a material. This is a relatively new type of 3D printing, the first experiments were carried out in 2000 by bioengineer Thomas Boland, who modified conventional desktop printers to print DNA fragments. For 20 years, this industry has stepped far forward, and now, in addition to prototypes of human organs, implants, vascular tubes, heart valves, auricles, cartilage, bone tissue and skin for subsequent transplantation are successfully printed. This type of printing has been successfully used to create "simulators" for doctors, on which they can rehearse operations or for students for live practice. And, of course, one of the main purposes of bioprinting is to print functioning internal organs for transplantation from the patient's biomaterial. So far, this direction is at the stage of development and testing and is not fully used to treat patients, but a large number of successful experiments have already been carried out. Like the heart seal by Israeli scientists in 2019year, while very tiny in size, but the main thing is that it is able to perform its functions.

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